In the law of Sale of goods an important point of debate is that the passing of property from the seller to the buyer. Precisely, the determination of the point in a very sale's transaction once the seller ceases to be the owner of the property and also the buyer becomes the owner of it. Property will pass from the seller to the buyer at any time independent of the transfer of possession and also the payment of the sale value by the buyer.

The Sale of Goods Act, 1930, (hereinafter referred as the Act) provides under section 19(1) that the property passes once the parties intend it to pass and also the intentions of the parties may be observed by having recourse to the terms of the contract, the conduct of the parties and also the circumstances of the case. The property might pass to the buyer at any time with the execution of the contract or afterwards, however, the possession in actual might pass to the buyer at a way later time or never.

Latter, usually happens in cases wherever according to the contract the goods are transhipped in the same transit to a destination apart from that of the buyer. The intentions of the parties remain to be the concentration for deciding the point of transfer of the property. The Act additionally provides some rules into sections 20 to 24 that apply wherever the intentions of the parties aren't clear as provided under section 19 of the Act.

Introduction
Commercial practices often allow buyers to obtain possession from the seller when he tenders the price or the seller agrees to supply the goods on credit. If the buyer has actually possessed the goods but before the payment is made, he becomes bankrupt. The seller will become an unsecured creditor if the property has passed to the buyer. However, if a property has not passed, the seller is entitled to assert his rights in rem (proprietary rights) and reclaim his goods.

This can be done with a prerequisite that the seller reserves the title and property and is only to pass on payment the seller is then able to recover the goods in the event of buyer's insolvency. Passing of property is also important where the seller becomes insolvent before delivery of the goods which the buyer has paid. A buyer's rights to the goods seem to be greater if the property has passed to him. It must be noted that in most circumstances risks of the goods passes with the property.

The seller is not entitled to sue to the price of the goods unless the property has passed. But, if the buyer refuses to accept delivery or repudiates contract before passing of property, the seller can only sue damages for non-acceptance.

One of the effects of the passing of property is the availability of remedies for both the seller and the buyer to sue a third party who has damaged or destroyed the goods. However, property alone will seldom be the key. It is usually combined with a right to possession or a contractual right against the third party.

For goods damaged at sea, the person who is entitled to sue will be the one who holds the bill of lading and that person has a contractual right both against the ship owner and the property. House of Lords has decided that a right of property is necessary to establish an action in tort against third parties.

Another importance of passing of property can be seen in tracing. This right exists because of the impact of the Romalpa case where the seller is able to obtain an equitable right to trace the proceeds from the buyer or subsequent recipients if the buyer sells goods which the property is still with the seller.

Having discussed the significance of the passing of property, the next part of this research concerns the rules governing the transfer of property.

Objectives of Study
This research examines the idea of the passing of the property in the goods as between seller and buyer. Wherever contract is an agreement to sell, and also the property remains with {the seller |the vendor}:
Contract remains executive; the buyer has sole rights in personam against the seller; the buyer's remedy against the seller, if he's in breach of contract, is for damages for non-delivery; the seller's remedy against the buyer, if he's in breach, is for damages for non-acceptance - the seller continues to be liable for the goods (storage charges, eliminating them if perishable, etc).

This research discusses the principles for deciding when the property passes, the statutory provisions concerning the perishing of specific goods. However, the passing of property is expounded to acceptance or rejection of goods, the danger concerned in the passing of property, and frustration of the sale of goods contracts.

Research Problem
Under the prevailing law, an individual who buys a specified quantity of goods forming part of a known bulk-say a hundred tonne of wheat forming a part of the cargo on a named ship cannot acquire property within the goods till the goods are determined. This can be the results of section 16 of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 that provides that: "where there is a contract for the sale of unascertained goods no property within the goods are transferred to the buyer unless and till the goods are determined".

The buyer could have paid for the goods and received a document purporting to be a document of title. However, if the seller becomes insolvent before the goods are determined, both the price and also the goods could pass to an office-holder in insolvency for the advantage of the seller's secured creditors.

This can be the sort of problem thought of during this report. We examine the law on the passing of property once goods forming a part of a bulk are sold and that we make recommendations for reform. A draft Bill to implement our recommendations is appended.

Research Questions:

1. What is 'Property' and what are the kinds of property under Contract?
2. What are the essentials and rules for transfer of Property under Contract?
3. What are the ways an immovable property can be transferred?
4. What are the properties which can be transferred?
5. What are the types of transfer of a property?

Research Methodology
The subject matter of my research is, "Analysis of Passing of Property in Contract." My study is based totally on "DOCTRINAL METHOD." There are many concepts or doctrines in this challenge. And additionally this venture contains maximum of the issues related to this subject matter. This undertaking is really primarily based on studies methodology.

The source materials are secondary. I even have used secondary assets like books, articles, and journals, and Internet-based research.

Analysis
Meaning:
The term Property isn't a Term of Art. It's been employed in a range of senses. In its widest sense, Property includes all the legal rights of an individual of whatever description. The property of a person is all that's his in law. Within the narrower sense, the property includes the proprietary rights of an individual and not his personal rights.

Definition:
In line with Section 2(c) of the Benami transaction (Prohibition) Act, 1988 defines Property[1] as" Property of any kind, whether movable or immovable, tangible or intangible, and includes any right or interest in such property.

According to Section 2(11) of the Sale of good Act, 1930 defines Property[2] as "General property in goods, not merely a special property."

Kinds of property:

Broadly Property is classified into three types those are as follows:

Movable and Immovable property:

Movable Property:

The definition of movable property is a given otherwise in several acts. Some definitions are as follows:

Section 3(36) of the General Clauses Act outlines movable property[3] as: 'Movable property shall mean property of every description, except immovable property."

Section 2(9) of the Registration Act, 1908 outlines property[4] as: 'movable property' includes standing timber, growing crops, and grass, fruit upon and juice in trees, and property of every alternative description, except immovable property."

Section 22 of IPC defines property[5] as: The words "movable property" is meant to incorporate corporeal property of every description, except land and things connected to the earth or permanently mounted to something, that is connected to the earth.

Things connected to the land might become movable property by severance from the earth. For example, Cart–loaded of earth, or stones quarried and carried away from the land become movable property.

Immovable Property:

The Term "Immovable Property" occurs in numerous Central Acts. But none of these Acts once and for all define this term. The foremost necessary act that deals with immovable property is the Transfer of Property Act (T.P. Act). Even within the T.P. Act, this term is outlined in terminology.

1.  In line with Section 3 of that Act[6], "Immovable Property" doesn't include standing timber, growing crop or grass. Thus, the term is outlined in the Act by excluding certain things. "Buildings" constitute immovable property and machinery, if embedded within the building for a beneficial use therefore, should be deemed to be a section of the building, and also the land on that the building is built.
    
2. As per Section 3(26) of the General Clauses Act 1897, "immovable property"[7] "shall include land, benefits to arise out of land and things connected to the earth, or permanently mounted to something connected to the earth." This definition of immovable property is additionally not exhaustive;
    
3. Section 2(6) of The Registration Act, 1908 defines "Immovable Property"[8] as under:
   "Immovable Property includes land, building, hereditary allowances, rights to ways that the lights, ferries, fisheries or the other profit to arise out of land, and things connected to the earth or permanently mounted to something that is connected to the earth however not standing timber, growing crops nor grass."
   
   The definition of the term "Immovable Property" under the Registration Act 1908, that extends to the entire of India, including the State of Jammu and Kashmir, is comprehensive. The above definition implies that building is enclosed within the definition of immovable property.
   
   Following are held as immovable property.
   A right to collect rent, life interest in the profit of the immovable property, right of means, a ferry, fishery, a lease of land.
    
4. The term "Immovable Property" is outlined in different Acts for the aim of these Acts. As per Section 269UA (d) of the income tax Act, 1961, immovable Property is outlined as under:
   
   1. "Any land or any building or a part of a building, and includes, wherever any land or any building or a part of a building is to be transferred beside any machinery, plant, furniture, fittings or different things, such machinery, plant, furniture, fittings, and other things additionally."[9]

Any rights in or with regard to land or any building or a part of the building (whether including any machinery, plant, furniture, fittings or other things therein) that has been constructed or that is to be constructed, accruing or arising from any transaction (whether by manner of becoming a member of, or acquiring shares in, a co-operative society, or other association of persons or by way of any agreement or any arrangement of whatever nature, not being a transaction by the manner of sale, exchange or lease of such land, building or a part of a building.

Tangible and Intangible Property
Tangible Property:
Tangible property refers to any sort of property that may usually is moved (i.e., it's not connected to material possession or land), touched or felt. These usually include things like furniture, clothing, jewellery, art, writings, or household goods.

Intangible Property:
Intangible property refers to private property that can't really be moved, touched or felt however instead represents one thing valuable like negotiable instruments, securities, service (economics), and intangible assets as well as chose in action.

Transfer of Property in goods
The property within the merchandise is claimed, to be transferred from the seller to the buyer once the latter acquires the proprietary rights over the goods and also the obligations connected to it. 'Property in Goods' which implies the possession of goods is totally different from 'possession of goods' which implies the physical custody or control of the goods.

The transfer of property within the goods from the seller to the buyer is the essence of a contract of sale. So the instant when the property in goods passes from the seller to the buyer is important for the following reasons:

1. Possession:
   The instant the property in goods passes, the seller ceases to be their owner and also the purchaser acquires the possession. The customer will exercise the proprietary rights over the goods. For instance, the buyer might sue the seller for non-delivery of the goods or when the seller has resold the goods, etc.
    
2. Risk follows possession:
   The general rule is the danger follows the possession, regardless of whether the delivery has been made or not. If the goods are damaged or destroyed, the loss shall be borne by the one who was the owner of the goods at the time of damage or destruction. So the danger of loss prima facie is within the person in whom the property is.
    
3. Action Against Third parties:
   Once the goods are in any means damaged or destroyed by the action of third parties, it's solely the owner of the goods who will take action against them.
    
4. Suit for value:
   The seller will sue the customer for the value, unless otherwise in agreement, solely when the goods became the property of the customer.
    
5. insolvency:
   Within the event of insolvency of either the seller or the buyer, whether or not the goods are often taken by the Official Receiver or recipient, can depend upon whether the property in goods is with the party who has become insolvent.

Essentials for Transfer of Property
The two essentials necessities for transfer of property within the goods are:

1. Goods should be determined:
   Unless the goods ascertained, they (or the property therein) cannot pass from the seller to the buyer. Thus, wherever there's a contract for the sale of unascertained goods, no property within the goods are transferred to the buyer unless and till the goods are ascertained.
    
2. Intention to PASS Property in goods should be there: during a sale of specific, or ascertained goods the property in them is transferred to the customer at such time because of the parties to contract intends it to be regard shall be had to the terms of the contract, the conduct of the parties and also the circumstances of the case.
    

Rules concerning Transfer of Property in Sale of Goods Act

1. Once there's a contract for the sale of unascertained goods, no property within the goods is transferred to the customer unless and until the goods are determined
2. Once there's a contract for the sale of specific or ascertained goods, the property in such goods passes to the customer at the time the parties intend it to pass. The terms of contract, and also the circumstances of the case can indicate the intention of the parties.
3. Once there's an unconditional contract for the sale of specific goods in a deliverable state, the property within the goods passes to the customer once the contract is made. The actual fact that the time of payment of the worth or the time of delivery {of goods |of products} has been delayed doesn't stop the property in goods to pass to the customer.
4. Once there's a contract for the sale of specific goods not in a deliverable state, the property within the goods doesn't pass till the seller has made it in a deliverable state.
5. Once there's a contract for the sale of specific goods in a deliverable state and also the seller needs to weigh or measure the goods to see the worth, the property in such goods doesn't pass till the worth is decided.
    

Different ways within which an immovable property is transferred:
Sale of immovable property:
Chapter III of the Act treats the transfer of ownership in exchange for a value paid or promised or part-paid and part-promised as sale of immovable property. A contract for the sale of immovable property may be a contract stating that a sale of such property can occur on terms settled between the parties. Delivery of tangible immovable property takes place once the seller places the buyer or such person as he directs, in the possession of the property.

Mortgage of immovable property:
Mortgage, outlined by Section 58 in Chapter IV, is an instrument to secure a loan. The transferor is termed a mortgagor, the transferee a mortgage holder. The principal cash and interest on that payment is secured for the time being is referred to as the mortgage-money, and also the instrument (if any) by that the transfer is established is termed a mortgage-deed.

Leases of immovable property:
Chapter V also states that a lease of immovable property may be a transfer of a right to enjoy such property for a definite time, in consideration of a value paid or promised, or of cash or service or a share of the crop, or any other factor of value that's rendered periodically or as fixed by the agreement between the transferor and also the transferee.

Exchange of property:
as per Chapter VI, once two persons mutually do not transfer the possession of one thing for the possession of another, thing nor both things being cash solely, the transaction is termed an "exchange." A transfer of property in completion of exchange is made solely in the manner provided for the transfer of such property by sale.

Gift of immovable Property:
Chapter VII of the Act covers the transfer of property by gift. Consequently, a gift is the transfer of existing movable or immovable property made voluntarily and inconsiderately, by one person, referred to as the donor, to another, referred to as the donne, and accepted by, or on behalf of the donne. The Act states that State Governments, through notification within the official gazette, could exempt provisions under Section 54, paragraph 2 and 3, 107 and 123. However, any district or tract of the country excluded from the operation of the Indian Registration Act, 1908, can't be lined by this exemption.

Property which can or can't be transferred:
The Transfer of Property Act specifies that property of any kind could also be transferred, except as otherwise provided by the Act or by the other law in force. Depending on the sort of property to be transferred, the transfer of property would include:

1. When the property is land:
   1. The easements annexed thereto;
   2. The rents and profits therefore accruing after the transfer; and
   3. All things connected to the earth.
       
2. Wherever the property may be a house:
   
   1. The easements annexed thereto;
   2. The rent therefore accruing when the transfer;
   3. Locks, keys, bar, doors, windows; and
   4. All other things provided for permanent use thereupon.

Where the property may is a debt or different actionable claim, the securities thus (except wherever they're conjointly for other debts or claims not transferred to the transferee), however not arrears of interest accumulated before the transfer. An actionable claim is outlined as a claim to any debt, aside from a debt secured by mortgage of immovable property or by hyphenation or pledge of movable property, or to any useful interest in movable property not within the possession, either actual or constructive, of the claimant, that the Civil Courts acknowledge as affording grounds for relief, whether such debt or beneficial interest is to be existent, accruing, conditional or contingent. Wherever the property is cash or other property yielding income, the interest or income wherefrom accruing after the transfer takes impact.

Property that can't be transferred:
The Act specifically provides for the properties that can't be transferred under the provisions of the Act. A similar is as follows:

1. The possibility of an heir-apparent succeeding to an estate, the possibility of a relation getting an inheritance on the death of a relation, or the other mere chance of like nature, can't be transferred.
    
2. A mere right of re-entry for breach of a condition subsequent can't be transferred to anyone except the owner of the property affected thereby.
    
3. An easement can't be transferred except the dominant heritage.
    
4. An interest in property restricted in its enjoyment to the owner in person can't be transferred by him.
    
5. A right to future maintenance, in whatever manner arising, secured or determined, can't be transferred.
    
6. A mere right to sue can't be transferred.
    
7. Public office can't be transferred, nor will the wage of a public officer, whether before or when it's become payable.
    
8. Stipends allowed to military, naval, air-force and civil pensioners of the government and political pensions can't be transferred.
    
9. No transfer is made (1) in so far because it is opposed to nature of the interest affected thereby, or (2) for an unlawful object or thought inside the which means of Section 23 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 (9 of 1872), or (3) to an individual lawfully disqualified to be transferee.
    
10. Nothing in this section shall be deemed to authorize a tenant having a nontransferable right of occupancy, farmer of an estate in respect of that default has been created in paying revenue, or the leaseholder of an estate, under the management of a Court of Wards to assign his interest intrinsically tenant, farmer or leaseholder. In line with Section 8 of the Act, the transfer of property passes to the transferee all the interest the transferor is capable of passing.

Types of Transfer of Property
Transfer:
The word 'transfer' is outlined with regard to the word 'convey." This word in The English law in its narrower and a lot of usual sense refers to the transfer of an estate in land; however, it's sometimes utilized in a way wider sensed to incorporate any sort of assurance inter vivos. The word 'convey' is in section 5 of the Transfer of Property Act is employed within the wider sense mentioned above. Transferor should have an interest in the property.

A lease comes inside the meaning of the word 'transfer." A transfer of property doesn't exclude property situated outside India or the territories wherever Transfer of Property Act, 1882 doesn't apply. If the transfer is affected wherever the Transfer of Property Act, 1882 is operative, the right of the parties been to be determined by the Court under the Transfer of Property Act.

Charge:
a charge isn't a transfer of property, for the charge, no right is transferred however, a private obligation is formed or a right to payment out of property specified may be generated. Within the insolvency Acts, a transfer of property, however, outlined as well as a charge. The definition is wider as a result of any obligation incurred by a debtor affecting his property is also revocable as a deceitful preference.

Compromise:
A compromise of doubtful rights isn't a transfer, however, based on the assumption there was an antecedent title of some kind in the parties that the agreement acknowledged and outlined. The position would vary if such a compromise additionally transferred properties to someone who has neither a pre-existing title, nor a claim to such title.

Deed of Appointment:
A transfer isn't essentially contractual, and enclosed a deed of appointment. Section 5 of the Transfer of Property Act doesn't need that the 'living person' who conveys ought to essentially be the same person as who owns, or owned, the property conveyed. All that's needed is there ought to be an act of conveyance by some living person; under the section, there is also a transfer by an individual exercising powers over the property of another. Thus, wherever the done of power of appointment, having the power to appoint a beneficial interest within the property, exercises that power, it might amount to a transfer.

Exchange:
an exchange could be a mutual transfer of the possession of one thing for another.

Entries in revenue records:
Entries in the revenue records is neither a proof of title upon the property nor will it be used as a camouflage to defeat the legal right, title or interest of an individual, who is the owner of the property in question. Revenue entries neither will confer a title nor will it extinguish the right of the title of the owner of the property. Mutation of the property within the revenue record conjointly doesn't create or extinguish title nor has any presumptive price on title.

It solely permits the person in whose favour mutation is ordered to pay land revenue in question. Thus, the correct proof of possession could be a registered sale deed in favour of the person. Revenue entries or revenue receipts have nothing to do with the possession and that they can't be treated as conclusive proof of the possession of the property.

Release Deed:
If the person executing the discharge deed holds some right, title or interest within the property; release of that interest would amount to conveyance. However, if the transferor could be a benamidar releasing the property to the real owner, it's not a conveyance.

Surrender:
A surrender isn't a transfer of property as outlined under Section 5 of the TP Act. It's the falling of a lesser estate into a greater one.

Will:
can operate from the death of the testator. A deed executed by husband and wife together providing that on the death of either of them, the survivor would retain all rights over the property as well as that of alienation and upon the death of the surviving executants the property would head to their children would be a will (and not a settlement of deed) as there's no transfer of a right the other executants. Transfer of shares or interest in a co-operative society to the nominee of its member operative on his death would even be dead like transfers by can.

Wherever the beneficiary isn't a living person, the expression used is the creation of an interest in an unborn person contemplated under section 13 of the Transfer Property Act, 1882. A Muslim person executed a document titled as 'will." By virtue of the executed document he delivered certain properties amongst his daughter and nephew in his lifespan and gave possession to the person named. It was held that it had been a conveyance and not a can, even though it represented the beneficiaries as heirs. Not being a registered document, it had been invalid.

Conclusion
A charge gives rise to a new proprietary interest in favour of the lender over the borrower's property. In distinction to a mortgage, there's no transfer of the borrower's existing interest, however, the creation of a new burden upon the borrower's possession. This interest in the method of charge appropriates the borrower's property to the compensation of the loan. In different words it entitles the lender to seem to the receiver ought property to the borrower to fail to repay the loan, for example, by demanding that the property be sold? Once the loan is repaid the charge can stop as there's no longer any appropriation.

Strictly speaking, a charge doesn't involve the transfer of possession, within the same means as a mortgage of unregistered title. The charge holder is deemed to possess all the legal rights of a mortgage holder. However, some mortgagee rights rely upon possession, like the inherent right to require possession. A charge holder doesn't have possession as a mortgagee. However, it's usually the case that conditions of a charge of registered land, right a grant mortgagee, by the terms of the charge deed.

Bibliography:

1. Benami Transaction(Prohibition) Act, 1988
2. Sale of Goods Act, 1930
3. General Clause Act, 1897
4. Registration Act, 1908
5. Indian Penal Code, 1860
6. Transfer of Property Act, 1882
7. General Clause Act, 1897
8. Registration Act, 1908
9. The Income Tax Act, 1961

End-Notes:

1. Acts and definitions - https://lawrato.com/indian-kanoon/
2. Report on Kinds of Property in Contract. (n.d.). - http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/502/Definition-&-concept-of-property.html
3. Report on Transfer of Property in Goods. (n.d.). - https://www.advocatekhoj.com/library/lawareas/saleofgoods/transfer.php?
4. Report on Rules for Transferring Property through Sales of Goods Act. (n.d.). - https://accountlearning.com/transfer-property-ownership-rights-reason-rules/
5. Report on Ways of Transfer of Property. (n.d.). - https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/31643/13/13_chapter%205.pdf