Forensic toxicology plays a critical role in criminal investigations by analysing biological and environmental samples to identify toxic substances related to drug overdoses, poisonings, and impaired driving, significantly impacting legal proceedings. However, the field faces substantial challenges including the emergence of novel psychoactive substances (NPS), evidence degradation, and a lack of standardized methodologies, which impede accurate toxin detection and interpretation.

These limitations directly impact the pursuit of justice. Furthermore, evolving drug trends and the complexity of biological samples necessitate innovative solutions and collaborative efforts from toxicologists, chemists, and legal experts. This research article explores these existing obstacles, encompassing technological limitations, sample degradation, as well as legal and ethical dilemmas surrounding evidence handling.

It offers a critical review of existing research and proposes strategies to improve the field's reliability and efficacy within judicial contexts. Ultimately, by directly addressing these key issues, the field of forensic toxicology will be better poised to enhance its contribution to the justice system.

Introduction:
Forensic toxicology utilizes scientific methodologies to identify and analyze toxic substances within various forensic scenarios. Its significance is particularly evident in investigations related to drug overdoses, instances of poisoning, and cases of impaired driving, among other critical areas. However, the field encounters numerous challenges, primarily stemming from the intricate nature of biological samples, the increasing presence of new psychoactive substances (NPS), and the swift degradation of collected evidence.

These obstacles complicate the accurate detection and quantification of toxins, which is essential for fair legal proceedings. Furthermore, as drug trends evolve and new substances enter the market, forensic toxicologists must continually adapt their techniques and protocols to remain effective. This article delves deeply into these pressing issues, highlighting the imperative for ongoing innovation, improved methodologies, and the establishment of standardized procedures to enhance the accuracy and reliability of forensic toxicology in the quest for justice.

Importance of Toxicology in Police Investigations:

Toxicology has a significant role in aiding police investigations. It refers to the scientific study of harmful substances, including toxins, drugs, and chemicals, that can cause injury or death. This knowledge is vital in criminal cases, especially those with unexplained deaths, drug-related incidents, and environmental hazards, as it provides crucial evidence for legal proceedings.

Toxicology is invaluable in establishing the cause of death in cases of suspected poisonings or overdoses. By examining biological samples such as blood, urine, and tissue, toxicologists can identify and measure harmful substances. This data assists investigating police officers in determining if a death was accidental, suicidal, or homicidal, thereby ensuring justice for the victim. Additionally, toxicological evidence can link suspects to crimes involving drug possession, distribution, and consumption.

Toxicology plays a pivotal role in investigating drug-facilitated sexual assaults and robberies. In such cases, victims may be unaware they were drugged, necessitating the detection of substances like sedatives or tranquilizers. Rapid collection and analysis of samples are crucial, as some substances metabolize quickly and may become undetectable after a short period.
Toxicology is essential in DUI cases, where the identification and quantification of alcohol or drugs in a driver's system are necessary to establish impairment. Breath, blood, and urine tests provide objective evidence that supports or refutes claims of sobriety, ensuring fair legal outcomes.

Toxicology is also beneficial in environmental crime investigations, such as illegal dumping of hazardous materials, and occupational exposure to toxic substances. By identifying harmful agents in affected populations, toxicologists can provide evidence for prosecuting offenders and implementing safety measures.

Despite the significant contributions of toxicology, challenges persist, such as the emergence of new synthetic drugs and the complexity of interpreting toxicological data. However, advances in analytical techniques, like mass spectrometry, enhance the detection and quantification of toxins, improving the reliability and scope of toxicological evidence for police investigations.

Key Challenges in Forensic Toxicology:

Absence of Standardized Procedures: Forensic toxicology currently encounters several significant challenges, primarily due to the absence of standardized protocols for sample collection, preservation, analysis, and reporting. This lack of standardization leads to inconsistent practices, which can produce inaccurate test results and complicate the replication of laboratory findings. For instance, one laboratory might apply a specific method for preparing a biological sample for toxin analysis, while another might employ a completely different technique, resulting in varying outcomes for the same case.
 
Furthermore, the criteria for reporting findings can differ from one lab to another. This disparity creates confusion and inconsistency in the relationship between law enforcement and the justice system. Such variations not only damage the credibility of forensic toxicological evidence in court but also hinder the collaborative efforts of forensic experts, ultimately eroding the integrity of investigations and the pursuit of justice.
 
Replicating laboratory findings involves conducting an experiment or study again to verify the results and conclusions for reliability, validity, and to account for coincidence, errors, and biases. This process is a crucial aspect of scientific methodology. It is essential in scientific research to confirm that the results are dependable and precise, rather than just products of chance, mistakes, or biases. Replication can be performed by the original researcher or by an independent party.

• Impact of Decomposition: The physical decomposition of a body can considerably influence the quality of toxicological evidence, often complicating investigations. For instance, certain substances, such as drugs or poisons, can start to degrade or interact with biological materials within just hours following death. This rapid alteration can obscure efforts to accurately gauge the levels of toxins present in the body at the time of death. As decomposition progresses, the chemical structure of bodily fluids and tissues can change dramatically.
  
  For example, a forensic expert examining liver samples may find that once recognizable concentrations of alcohol or prescription medications have transformed into different metabolites, making it challenging to ascertain the original amounts present. Similarly, the presence of bacteria can produce new compounds that mimic the effects of toxins, further complicating analyses.
  
  The evolving state of decomposition thus acts as a barrier for law enforcement and medical professionals trying to pinpoint the exact cause of death. Without an accurate toxicological profile, discerning whether a death resulted from an overdose, poisoning, or underlying health issues becomes increasingly difficult, ultimately hindering justice and proper medical intervention. Consequently, the interplay between decomposition and toxicological evidence is a pivotal concern in forensic science.
   
• Resource Constraints and Skill Gaps: Resource limitations and skill shortages hinder many forensic laboratories, especially in underdeveloped regions. For instance, insufficient funding may prevent labs from acquiring modern equipment, restricting their capacity to conduct advanced toxicological tests. Additionally, outdated technologies can result in inaccurate results, while the shortage of skilled personnel means fewer experts are available to interpret complex data.
  
  Consequently, these challenges can lead to significant delays in the judicial process, as cases requiring toxicological analysis are postponed. In some instances, crucial evidence may be overlooked due to the inability to perform timely analyses, ultimately compromising the integrity of the justice system and hindering efforts to hold offenders accountable. Addressing these gaps is vital for enhancing forensic capabilities and ensuring equitable justice.
   
• Complexity of Toxic Compounds: Forensic toxicology encounters considerable hurdles stemming from the complex characteristics of toxic compounds, which include a wide range of chemicals, medications, and naturally occurring toxins. The swift development of drug formulations, such as synthetic cannabinoids and opioids, coupled with the emergence of designer drugs like fentanyl analogues, complicates the ability of toxicologists to stay updated on the newest detection and analytical methods.
  
  Moreover, the continuous introduction of unregulated substances challenges existing testing protocols, as seen with the evolving landscape of recreational drugs. Consequently, forensic experts must continually adapt their methodologies to effectively identify and analyse these substances, ensuring accurate results in toxicological investigations.
   
• New Emerging Threats: As novel challenges arise - such as pollutants from industrial processes, potential bioterrorism agents like anthrax, and synthetic drugs like Spice - forensic toxicology is compelled to evolve. The need to accurately identify and measure these substances requires enhanced research initiatives. For instance, environmental toxins, which can stem from pesticides or heavy metals, pose significant health risks that forensic toxicologists must assess. Similarly, bioterrorism agents necessitate the development of specialized detection methods to ensure public safety.
  
  Furthermore, with the rise of synthetic cannabinoids, which can mimic the effects of THC but are often more potent and unpredictable, there is a pressing need for advanced analytical techniques. This ongoing evolution adds to the complexity and demands of an already overburdened field.
   
• Challenges in Interpretation: Interpreting toxicological findings can frequently be subjective and lead to debates. For example, linking substances like alcohol or opioids directly to behavioural changes or health issues can be complex, as individual responses vary widely. A person who consumes alcohol may exhibit aggression, while another may become more sociable, highlighting the inconsistency in effects.

Additionally, factors like metabolic rates - where some process toxins faster than others- and different exposure histories, such as chronic versus acute exposure to chemicals like pesticides, add layers of complexity to these assessments. Therefore, establishing a definitive relationship between specific toxins and their consequences on health or behaviour remains a challenging task in toxicology.

• Challenges with Adulterants and Complex Samples: The presence of adulterants in illegal drugs, alongside the intricacies of biological samples like blood, urine, and hair, poses considerable analytical difficulties. For instance, distinguishing between the various substances in a urine sample tainted with cutting agents can be particularly challenging. Extracting harmful compounds from these complex biological matrices without cross-contamination is a notable obstacle.
  
  This process demands sophisticated analytical methods – such as mass spectrometry and chromatography – and substantial expertise in forensic toxicology. Additionally, variations in sample composition can further complicate analysis. To accurately identify and quantify these toxins, researchers must continuously refine their techniques, ensuring reliability in drug testing and toxicological investigations in both clinical and forensic settings.
   
• Limitations of Detection Methods: Detection methods have seen significant advancements, yet they continue to face challenges, especially in detecting trace-level toxins. Limitations in sensitivity and specificity often result in erroneous results, complicating criminal investigations. For instance, while techniques like Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) offer high precision, they require specialized expertise and substantial financial investment that may be beyond the reach of some forensic labs.
  
  Consequently, smaller laboratories may struggle to employ these sophisticated tools effectively, limiting their ability to produce reliable findings. Overall, despite the progress made, the effectiveness of forensic detection remains hindered by technological and resource constraints.
   
• Legal and Ethical Considerations: Toxicologists face numerous ethical challenges and legal hurdles in their profession. For instance, ensuring an unbroken chain of custody is crucial, as any lapse could undermine the credibility of evidence in a legal case. Additionally, concerns about possible sample tampering, such as adulterating a blood test, could complicate matters in court. Laboratory errors, like mislabeling samples, can further cloud results and lead to incorrect conclusions.
  
  Furthermore, the misuse of toxicological data – whether through deliberate manipulation or simple misinterpretation – can have severe consequences, including the potential for wrongful convictions. A case in point is when inaccurate toxicological reports contributed to a defendant being wrongfully sentenced for a crime they did not commit, showcasing the real-world implications of these issues.
   
• Interdisciplinary Collaboration Necessity: The success of forensic toxicology is fundamentally dependent on the cooperation between multiple disciplines such as pharmacology, analytical chemistry, and pathology. For instance, a forensic toxicologist may require the knowledge of a pharmacologist to understand how different substances interact within the human body.
  
  Similarly, analytical chemists’ expertise is crucial for accurate detection and quantification of toxic substances. If these specialists fail to communicate effectively or integrate their findings, it can lead to significant errors, like misidentifying a substance or overlooking critical evidence, which could delay legal proceedings. Ultimately, such lapses can compromise the integrity of an investigation, highlighting the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in achieving accurate and swift forensic outcomes.
   
• Training and Expertise: A shortage of trained toxicologists and forensic scientists exacerbates the challenges in the field. The gap between academic training and practical requirements often leaves professionals ill-equipped to handle complex cases.

Advancements in Drug Formulations: Pharmaceutical advancements, such as extended-release formulations, complicate toxicological analyses. These drugs often exhibit delayed absorption and prolonged metabolism, making it challenging to correlate findings with toxic effects.

Literature Review:
Forensic toxicology, a vital element of criminal investigations, meticulously examines biological samples to identify and assess the impact of toxic substances. While the field has made considerable progress, it still grapples with significant hurdles stemming from the complexity of toxins, the emergence of novel synthetic drugs, and the demand for sophisticated analytical methods. This review delves into these persistent challenges and highlights the advancements driving progress in the field.

• The Rise of Synthetic Cannabinoids and Opioids: Forensic toxicologists face a formidable challenge with synthetic cannabinoids and opioids. These often more potent substances are constantly being modified to circumvent legal restrictions. Synthetic cannabinoids, for instance, are associated with severe health consequences, yet their rapid metabolism and the ongoing emergence of new variants complicate detection and quantification (Zhuo et al., 2018). Similarly, highly potent fentanyl analogues pose a significant overdose risk and are difficult to identify using standard assays (Dahan et al., 2019).
   
• THC Detection and Interpretation: Identifying and interpreting the presence of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabis's psychoactive component, is especially problematic in impaired driving cases. Varying metabolic rates and the persistence of THC and its metabolites in the body complicate detection. Studies reveal that THC can remain detectable long after its psychoactive effects have subsided, making it difficult to accurately assess impairment in DUI cases (Hartman & Huestis, 2013).
   
• The Persistent Threat of Heavy Metals: Heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, and mercury remain a major concern in forensic investigations due to their toxicity and potential for intentional poisoning. Precise analytical techniques are essential for detection, and interpretation must consider both acute and chronic exposure risks. While advanced methods like inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) have improved detection, linking exposure levels to clinical outcomes remains challenging (Rodriguez-Mercado & Altamirano-Lozano, 2013).

• Analytical Technique Complexities: Modern forensic toxicology relies heavily on advanced techniques like gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Although these methods have greatly improved substance detection, they require substantial expertise and resources. Interpreting results is complex, especially when dealing with low concentrations or multiple substances (Lee et al., 2016).
   
• Drug-Facilitated Crimes and Timely Detection: Drug-facilitated crimes, including sexual assaults, pose unique challenges. The rapid metabolism of substances like benzodiazepines and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) necessitates rapid sample collection. Victims often don't know what substances were administered, further complicating interpretation and requiring meticulous analysis and reporting by toxicologists (Sturman et al., 2014).
   
• The Nuances of Toxicological Evidence Interpretation: Interpreting toxicological evidence in legal contexts demands a profound understanding of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Factors such as individual metabolism, tolerance, and interactions between substances all impact the interpretation of findings. The legal implications require clear and accurate reporting, which can be difficult in cases with multiple substances or novel psychoactive substances (Aronson & Hardman, 2019).
   
• High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry: The introduction of high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has significantly advanced forensic toxicology. HRMS enables the detection of novel psychoactive substances by providing detailed molecular information crucial for identifying unknown compounds. This technology is particularly valuable in cases involving synthetic cannabinoids and opioids, where traditional methods often fall short (Klingmann et al., 2020).

• The Promise of Forensic Toxicogenomics: Forensic toxicogenomics is emerging as a new frontier by investigating the interaction between genes and toxic substances. This approach sheds light on individual susceptibility to toxins and the genetic factors influencing metabolism and toxicity. Toxicogenomics holds the potential to improve result interpretation and provide personalized insights into toxic exposures (Siddiqui et al., 2016).
   
• Machine Learning Applications: Machine learning algorithms are increasingly being used to improve data analysis within forensic toxicology. These algorithms can process large datasets, identify patterns, and predict outcomes based on toxicological data. This technology has shown significant promise in enhancing the accuracy of substance identification and the prediction of toxic effects (Yap et al., 2021).
   
• Detection Challenges: The origins of forensic toxicology trace back to the 19th century, with significant contributions from pioneers like Mathieu Orfila, known as the "Father of Toxicology." Over time, the field has evolved to incorporate sophisticated techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Research by Baselt (2019) highlights the pivotal role of these methods in detecting trace amounts of toxins.
   
• Challenges in Toxicological Detection and Analysis: Previous research has repeatedly highlighted challenges including matrix interferences, low detection limits, and the absence of standardized protocols in toxicological evaluations. For example, a study conducted by Smith et al. (2020) emphasizes the challenges related to the detection of highly volatile compounds.

Additionally, recent studies indicate that synthetic drugs and their metabolites present significant difficulties, frequently eluding conventional detection techniques (Jones et al., 2021).
Legal and Ethical Challenges: The legal admissibility of toxicological findings is often contested due to concerns over accuracy and sample integrity. Ethical issues, including informed consent for postmortem testing and privacy concerns regarding toxicological data, have also been extensively debated in literature (Peterson & Hickman, 2018).

The Role of AI in Forensic Toxicology:

The field of modern forensic toxicology is increasingly incorporating Artificial Intelligence (AI) to enhance both the accuracy and efficiency of toxicological analysis. To do this, AI algorithms are employed to process extensive datasets generated by analytical techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

This processing enables the identification of patterns and potentially harmful toxins that may be overlooked by traditional methods. In particular, machine learning models are used to forecast the presence of specific substances, evaluate their toxicity levels, and identify novel compounds; this is essential when dealing with the constant development of new synthetic drugs.

These AI-driven systems are capable of substantially reducing human error and improving the speed of analysis, making them indispensable in situations where time is critical, such as investigations into drug-facilitated crimes or overdose incidents.

In addition, AI shows great potential for improving the interpretation of complex toxicological data. Traditional forensic toxicology often struggles when analysing mixtures of multiple substances or pinpointing novel psychoactive drugs, cases that require a thorough understanding of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. AI can simulate and model these processes, providing more precise predictions on how substances interact within the human body.

This enhanced capacity for predictive accuracy is particularly important when handling new and emerging synthetic drugs where conventional methods might not be sufficient. By applying AI to streamline data analysis and refine result interpretation, forensic toxicology can become more effective in tackling the increasing complexities of modern toxicological cases.

Challenges in the Use of AI in Forensic Toxicology:

The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into the field of forensic toxicology, while promising, is fraught with significant hurdles that must be overcome before widespread implementation can be considered. A foundational challenge lies in the demanding data requirements for effective AI application. To train AI models capable of accurately identifying and predicting toxic substances, the data used must be both exceptionally high in quality and exceptionally comprehensive, encompassing a vast array of compounds, concentrations, and potential interactions.

Unfortunately, the presence of incomplete, inconsistent, or biased datasets risks corrupting the training process, leading to inaccurate predictions, flawed conclusions, and ultimately, undermining the trustworthiness of AI-driven results. This dependence on meticulous and extensive data collection poses a considerable obstacle for many forensic laboratories, particularly those with limited resources or access to diverse sample populations.

Furthermore, the practical deployment of AI in forensic toxicology faces substantial operational challenges. AI systems often demand substantial computational resources, including powerful processors and sophisticated software infrastructure, and this can be a significant financial investment. The very nature of AI also requires specialized expertise in areas such as machine learning and data science to develop, deploy, and maintain these systems effectively.

The relative scarcity of such skilled professionals, especially within the forensic science field, adds another layer of complication and acts as a limiting factor for many labs lacking the necessary dedicated personnel. In addition, the complexity of toxicological data, which encompasses intricate chemical interactions between different substances, the rapid emergence of novel psychoactive drugs, and a wide variation in biological responses, poses a major hurdle for AI algorithms to interpret the results accurately and reliably.

Finally, the adoption of AI in forensic toxicology is tempered by crucial legal and ethical considerations that require careful evaluation and resolution. The transparency, or lack thereof, in how AI reaches decisions is a major concern and could impact its acceptance in legal settings. The challenge of explaining the 'black box' nature of some AI algorithms, where the decision-making is opaque, raises questions about whether these AI-based conclusions can be presented convincingly in court.

Additionally, there are concerns surrounding potential bias embedded in AI models and the implications this could have on the fairness and equity of the legal process. Resolving these issues, ensuring the transparency and integrity of AI systems, and establishing clear legal frameworks for their use are critical to facilitating the responsible and widespread use of AI in forensic toxicology.

Constraints of Forensic Toxicology Detection Techniques:

The detection methods utilized in forensic toxicology, despite their advanced technology, face significant limitations. Various challenges exist across technical, legal, operational, and ethical domains, which can hinder the effectiveness of toxicological analysis. Key points outlining these obstacles highlight the complexities faced by professionals in the field.

One notable challenge arises from cross-reactivity in immunoassays, which are commonly employed for initial testing. These assays may yield false positive results when they interact with substances that are chemically similar, thereby reducing their specificity and reliability.

Additionally, matrix effects from biological samples such as blood, urine, or tissue can interfere with analytical techniques like LC-MS/MS, causing ion suppression or enhancement that distorts quantitative results.

Another concern involves the sensitivity and specificity of instruments such as GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. Although these methods are renowned for their high sensitivity, the low concentrations of analytes in complex biological matrices may still fall below detection thresholds, particularly when analysing newer drugs. Furthermore, the dynamic nature of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) poses a challenge, as existing methodologies may not be able to swiftly identify or accurately quantify these emerging compounds.

The stability of analytes is also critical; many drugs and their metabolites can deteriorate rapidly in biological samples, compromising the accuracy of results unless timely preservation and analysis are conducted. Additionally, the occurrence of false positives and negatives due to analytical errors, contamination, or incorrect cutoff levels can lead to misleading conclusions about substance presence. Variability in drug metabolism influenced by genetic factors, age, and health conditions adds further complexity to the interpretation of toxicology results.

Moreover, long-term drug users often develop high tolerance levels, which can obscure the relationship between toxicology findings and behavioural or physiological effects. The potential for drug-drug interactions complicates the identification of primary toxic agents during overdose scenarios. Certain drugs, especially those with extended-release formulations, may exhibit delayed toxic effects, complicating the association between drug ingestion and symptom onset.

Finally, practical challenges such as the high cost of cutting-edge instrumentation, the complexity of sample preparation, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to forensic facilities in remote areas hinder effective analysis. The lack of standardized protocols can result in inconsistencies among laboratories, while issues surrounding the admissibility of evidence and the chain of custody can undermine the integrity of toxicological findings.

Additionally, regulatory gaps regarding emerging drugs and a shortage of trained personnel exacerbate the difficulties faced in this field. Ethical dilemmas related to sample collection and the use of toxicological data further complicate the landscape. In conclusion, while advancements in detection methods have been made, addressing these myriad challenges requires concerted efforts in infrastructure investment, procedural standardization, ongoing training, and the establishment of robust legal frameworks to meet the evolving demands of forensic science.

Recommendations:
It is imperative to establish robust training programs for forensic toxicologists to navigate the complexities of their field. These educational initiatives should emphasize contemporary challenges, particularly the detection of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and the intricacies of drug interactions. By equipping toxicologists with the latest knowledge and skills, we can enhance their ability to accurately assess and interpret toxicological data. This proactive approach not only strengthens the workforce but also ensures that professionals are well-prepared to respond to emerging issues in toxicology.

Increased investment in cutting-edge technology and a greater number of forensic toxicologists and laboratories are essential for governments and institutions to dramatically improve forensic toxicology and support sound police investigations. High-resolution mass spectrometers and other state-of-the-art equipment play a crucial role in enhancing detection capabilities, enabling toxicologists to identify substances with greater accuracy and precision.

Such investments not only improve analytical capabilities but also foster a culture of innovation within forensic laboratories. As technology continues to advance, it is essential that the tools available to forensic professionals keep pace, ultimately leading to more reliable and comprehensive toxicological assessments.

Promoting collaboration among forensic laboratories across the globe is vital for sharing knowledge and best practices, which can greatly enhance the field of forensic toxicology. Establishing networks for data sharing, including comprehensive databases of toxicological findings, can facilitate the swift identification of unknown substances, thereby improving response times to emerging threats.

Additionally, raising public awareness about the role and limitations of forensic toxicology is essential for managing societal expectations and building trust in its findings. By educating the community on these matters, we can foster a more informed public, which is essential for the effective functioning of the justice system and public health initiatives.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, forensic toxicology plays a vital role in criminal investigations by analysing biological samples for toxins. While the field has made significant strides, challenges persist, such as the emergence of novel synthetic drugs, the complexities of THC detection, and the presence of heavy metals. Technological advancements like high-resolution mass spectrometry and AI offer enhanced detection capabilities, yet issues like interferences and detection limitations remain.

Furthermore, legal and ethical considerations surrounding the admissibility of evidence and privacy safeguards necessitate careful attention. Therefore, continuous research and the development of innovative technologies are paramount to ensuring the continued effectiveness and integrity of forensic toxicology in the pursuit of justice.

References:

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Written By: Md.Imran Wahab, IPS, IGP, Provisioning, West Bengal
Email: [email protected], Ph no: 9836576565