"Eventually, red markets have the nasty social side effect of moving flesh upward, never downward through social classes. Even without a criminal element, unrestricted free markets act like vampires, sapping the health and strength from ghettos of poor donors and funneling their parts to the wealthy."

Abstract:
Human organ trafficking has become one of the most egregious and widespread human rights violations in the world, especially affecting vulnerable groups like women and children. As the second-largest illegal trade globally, trailing only behind drug and weapon trafficking, it stands as a significant threat to both individual well-being and societal justice. This illicit trade not only jeopardizes health and life but also undermines fundamental human rights, such as personal security, freedom, and dignity.

In India, the problem has escalated notably, fuelled by a combination of factors including widespread poverty and the rising demand for organs, which is not met by a sufficient supply. Organ trafficking has evolved into a serious organized crime, further exacerbated by the desperation of individuals in extreme economic conditions.

This article will explore the root causes of organ trafficking in India and examine the legal frameworks designed to curb such practices. While laws exist to tackle organ trade, the gap between policy and effective implementation remains a critical issue. The purpose of this article is to delve into the nature of organ trafficking as a criminal enterprise and analyse the legislative measures aimed at combating it.

Introduction:
Human organ trafficking refers to the illegal trade and transplantation of human organs, often involving vulnerable individuals who are coerced or deceived into selling their organs. In countries like India, where there is a high demand for organ transplants and an inadequate supply of legally available organs, illegal organ trafficking has become a significant social and ethical concern.

Despite the efforts of the Indian government to regulate organ donation through laws and regulations, illegal organ trade continues to thrive, with both domestic and international networks operating across borders. India, with its growing healthcare sector, faces unique challenges in regulating organ transplantation, balancing ethical considerations, legal frameworks, and the practicalities of meeting the demand for organs. This article explores the existing legal framework in India regarding organ transplantation, examines the ethical issues surrounding organ trafficking, and discusses the necessary steps to combat this growing threat.

Organ trafficking: is the recruitment, transport, transfer, harbouring or receipt of living or deceased persons or their organs by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or of the giving to, or the receiving by, a third party of payments or benefits to achieve the transfer of control over the potential donor, for the purpose of exploitation by the removal of organs for transplantation.

The main drivers of organ trafficking in India are multifaceted. First, the country is home to a large population living below the poverty line, many of whom are desperate for money and willing to sell their organs in exchange for financial relief. These vulnerable individuals are often manipulated or coerced into donating their organs under false pretences, with little regard for their health, well-being, or informed consent. Secondly, there is a critical shortage of legal organ donations due to a lack of awareness about organ donation, cultural taboos surrounding it, and insufficient infrastructure to manage organ transplants.

This has created a black market where organs are bought and sold for exorbitant prices, frequently with little regard for the donor's health or the ethical implications of the transaction. The rise in organ trafficking in India is also fuelled by the high demand for organs such as kidneys, livers, and corneas, among others. Thousands of patients requiring life-saving organ transplants often face long waiting lists, making them vulnerable to unscrupulous middlemen who exploit their desperation.

This demand-supply gap has made the illegal organ trade a highly lucrative business for criminal syndicates who operate across borders, preying on the poor and exploiting gaps in law enforcement. The victims of this trade suffer not only from physical harm but also from profound emotional and psychological trauma, as they are often left with lifelong health complications and a loss of dignity.

Overview of Human Organ Trafficking and Illegal Organ Transplantation in India:

Human organ trafficking involves the illegal acquisition, sale, and transplantation of human organs, typically kidneys, livers, and hearts. This illicit trade is often facilitated by organized criminal syndicates that exploit poverty-stricken individuals, promising them large sums of money in exchange for their organs. Victims of organ trafficking may be coerced, deceived, or forced into donating their organs, with little to no understanding of the long-term health risks they will face.

In India, the demand for organs far exceeds the supply of legally available organs, leading to a thriving black market. According to estimates, the country sees thousands of illegal kidney transplants every year, with victims often trafficked both within the country and from neighbouring countries such as Nepal, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. These illegal operations are typically carried out in unregulated clinics, where medical standards are often neglected, putting the health and lives of both donors and recipients at risk.

Illegal Organ Transplantation:

Illegal organ transplantation involves the unauthorized removal, sale, and transplantation of human organs, typically kidneys, livers, and, more rarely, hearts. This illicit activity is fuelled by the disparity between the growing demand for organs and the insufficient legal channels to meet that demand. In countries like India, where organ donation rates are low and the need for organ transplants is high, illegal organ trafficking has become a significant issue.

Organ trafficking undermines both medical ethics and the fundamental human rights of individuals, particularly the right to bodily integrity and freedom from exploitation. This paper examines the legal, social, and ethical dimensions of illegal organ transplantation in India, the role of existing legal frameworks in regulating organ donation, and the human rights violations associated with this practice. Additionally, it will explore recommendations for tackling this ongoing issue.

Understanding Illegal Organ Transplantation:

Illegal organ transplantation is a grave form of medical crime that involves the unlawful acquisition and transplantation of organs, often for financial gain. It usually occurs through the following mechanisms:

Human Organ Trafficking

• Trafficking of Donors: Poor individuals, often from rural areas or other countries, are lured or coerced into selling their organs. These individuals may be deceived with promises of large sums of money, but they are often not fully informed of the health risks or long-term consequences of organ donation.
   
• Unauthorized Transplants: Some doctors and hospitals perform organ transplants without proper authorization, often bypassing the legal requirements of voluntary, informed consent. These transplants may be carried out in non-compliant medical facilities, increasing the risks for both the donor and recipient.
   
• Illegal Organ Market: The black market for organs operates as a global network of brokers, traffickers, and unscrupulous medical professionals who facilitate the trade and trafficking of organs, creating a multi-billion-dollar industry.

Root Causes of Human Organ Trafficking in India:

Human organ trafficking in India is driven by several interconnected socio-economic, legal, and ethical factors.

Key root causes include:

• Demand-Supply Gap: The demand for organs, particularly kidneys, far exceeds the supply of legally available organs. According to the Indian Society of Nephrology, there are approximately 200,000 people in need of a kidney transplant annually, but only around 5,000 transplants are conducted.
  • This huge gap between demand and supply drives people to the illegal market.
     
• Poverty and Vulnerability: Many trafficked victims come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. Organ traffickers prey on their desperation, offering large sums of money in exchange for organs. Vulnerable populations, such as migrant labourers, impoverished individuals, and those in rural areas with limited access to healthcare, are often targeted.
   
• Weak Enforcement and Corruption: Although India has robust laws regarding organ transplantation, the enforcement of these laws is often weak. Corruption in the healthcare sector, coupled with limited regulatory oversight, enables illegal activities to flourish. Medical professionals and hospital staff, in some cases, are complicit in the black market, further complicating efforts to combat trafficking.
   
• Lack of Public Awareness: Many people are unaware of the legal and ethical norms governing organ transplantation. Lack of education about the risks of organ trafficking and the legal framework available for donation and transplantation makes individuals more vulnerable to exploitation.
   
• Transnational Networks: Organ trafficking often operates across national borders, with victims being trafficked from neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, and even Pakistan. The transnational nature of this crime complicates law enforcement efforts, as international coordination is needed to curb the trade.
   
• Cultural and Ethical Gaps: In some parts of India, there is a lack of awareness about ethical medical practices. The normalization of informal organ donation without strict consent procedures has contributed to a culture of exploitation.

Ethical Dimensions of Human Organ Trafficking in India:

Human organ trafficking is an issue that transcends legal frameworks and touches upon deep moral, ethical, and human rights concerns. The trafficking of organs for transplantation involves exploitation, coercion, and severe violation of individual autonomy. The ethical implications are particularly stark in a country like India, where socio-economic disparities, lack of education, and inadequate legal enforcement create an environment conducive to such exploitation. In this section, we will explore the various ethical dimensions associated with organ trafficking in India.

1. Violation of Autonomy and Informed Consent One of the most fundamental ethical principles in medicine and human rights is the right to autonomy—meaning individuals must be free to make decisions about their own bodies. Organ trafficking, particularly illegal organ trade, undermines this principle by often violating a person's autonomy. In many cases, individuals are coerced, misled, or forced into donating their organs under duress, or they may not fully understand the ramifications of the procedure they are subjected to.
   • Coercion and Deception: Victims of organ trafficking are frequently told that they are either donating organs voluntarily or that the procedure is a medical treatment for a different condition. In reality, they may be subjected to a non-consensual or deceptive organ harvesting process. This can be seen as a direct violation of the principle of informed consent, as these individuals are often not fully aware of the long-term consequences for their health and well-being.
   • Forced Donation: There are instances where victims, especially from marginalized backgrounds, are forced into selling or "donating" their organs through threats, physical abuse, or exploitation of their socio-economic vulnerability. Such practices not only strip individuals of their basic human rights but also perpetuate a cycle of exploitation.
      
2. Exploitation of Vulnerability and Inequality Human organ trafficking disproportionately affects the poor, the uneducated, and marginalized populations in society. In India, where there are significant socio-economic disparities, many individuals are lured into organ trafficking networks with false promises of financial gain. This exploitation of vulnerable people raises serious ethical concerns:
   • Exploitation of Poverty: Vulnerable individuals, particularly those in extreme poverty, are often the targets of organ traffickers who prey on their desperation for money. Traffickers exploit their economic hardships, offering large sums for an organ donation that may later turn out to be an irreversible, damaging procedure with no financial reward.
   • Economic Inequality and Human Rights: Exploiting people's poverty to harvest organs highlights the ethical issues related to economic inequality. When individuals are forced to "sell" parts of their bodies to survive, it is not merely a violation of individual rights but a symptom of a deeper systemic failure in addressing poverty, access to healthcare, and social justice.
      
3. Health and Safety Risks Ethical concerns also arise from the health risks associated with illegal organ transplants. While ethical organ donation ensures a recipient's safety through proper medical procedures and donor screening, the black market for organs is unregulated, unsafe, and often carried out by unqualified personnel. This exposes both the donor and the recipient to severe health risks.
   • Health Risks for Donors: Organ donors who sell or "donate" their organs through illegal means often undergo surgery without proper medical screening, in unhygienic conditions, and without adequate post-operative care.
   • Health Risks for Recipients: Recipients of trafficked organs are at risk of receiving organs from unqualified sources or those with undetected diseases, which may result in rejection, infection, or transmission of diseases like HIV, hepatitis, or tuberculosis.
      
4. The Ethical Dilemma of Commodification of the Human Body Human organ trafficking raises profound ethical questions about the commodification of the human body. When organs are bought and sold on the black market, they become a product in a transaction, stripping them of their inherent value as parts of the human body. This commodification has broader ethical implications:
   • Human Dignity and Bodily Integrity: Selling organs undermines the intrinsic dignity of the human body. The body should be treated with respect, not as a mere object that can be traded.
   • Ethical Issues in Organ Donation: There is a growing debate on whether organ donation itself should involve any form of compensation. Some argue that providing financial incentives for organ donation could reduce the need for illegal markets.
      
5. Impact on Society: Erosion of Trust in Medical Institutions The existence of human organ trafficking undermines trust in healthcare systems and medical institutions, which is an essential foundation for ethical medical practice. If patients or potential donors believe that the medical community is complicit in the illegal trade of organs, this can erode trust in the healthcare system.
   • Public Perception of Medical Ethics: Widespread knowledge of organ trafficking can lead to distrust in both the transplant process and medical practitioners.
   • Corruption within Medical Systems: When healthcare professionals become complicit in illegal organ trafficking, the ethical foundation of the medical profession is seriously compromised.
      
6. Ethical Dilemma of Organ Transplantation Itself While the practice of organ transplantation can save lives, the ethical dilemma surrounding organ trafficking raises broader questions about the very nature of organ transplantation.
   • The Ethics of Organ Allocation: In situations where organs are obtained through illegal means, questions arise about the ethics of transplanting organs into recipients.

Indian legal framework on organ trafficking and transplantation:
The right against exploitation, which encompasses organ trafficking and is intricately linked to human trafficking, is safeguarded by the Indian Constitution. As previously mentioned, a crucial aspect of Article 21 is the right to health and an individual's autonomy over their own body. Every citizen of India is entitled to a life of dignity under Article 21 (Basu, 2012).

Therefore, anyone involved in the abduction of children or the exploitation of the elderly for organ harvesting, or anyone committing the act themselves, can be penalized under Section 360(3) of the Indian Penal Code, in conjunction with the provisions of the Transplantation of Human Organs Act (1994) (Malhotra & Goel, 2013).

The Transplantation of Human Organs Act of 1994 establishes a legal framework that, in theory, facilitates the acquisition of organs for those in need. The legislation primarily aims to regulate and encourage organ donations from close family members based on genuine affection and consent. Organs can also be donated by consent in cases of deceased donors, provided their family members agree and there have been no prior objections from the deceased (Malhotra & Goel, 2013).

However, the original Act of 1994 had several shortcomings, which were addressed by an Amendment Act passed in 2011, and its provisions were debated in West Bengal. This revised Act allowed for the donation of organs by living individuals (Parikh, 2020). The Act mandates that doctors inform the family members of potential organ donors about the option of organ donation before any decision is made

regarding consent or refusal. Failure to provide this information could result in significant penalties for medical practitioners. Despite these improvements, challenges remained, particularly in the lack of clarity surrounding the role of the Authorizing Committee and the inadequate infrastructure in public hospitals in rural areas. Additionally, many medical professionals struggled with the concept of brain death (Sahay, 2020).

Indian Organ Trafficking Scenario:
The infamous Dr. Amit Kumar case exposed a range of serious issues and misconduct related to illegal organ trafficking. Foreign workers were coerced into becoming live organ donors with promises of 300,000 rupees, while Dr. Kumar allegedly charged nearly $50,000 for each illegal transplant he performed. Over the course of his criminal activities, he carried out approximately 500 unauthorized transplants, all of which were later uncovered.

Further investigations revealed that around 2,000 Indians sell their kidneys each year. In a similarly disturbing case, the NGO Bachpan Bachao Andolan was found to have been involved in storing the bodies of infants, who were later discovered to have missing organs. However, local authorities refused to classify this as organ trafficking or murder, choosing instead to categorize it as mere abduction (Kaushik, 2022).

It remains unclear how many of the 50,000 or more children who go missing annually in India are abducted and subjected to illegal organ harvesting. As noted in the report, a child goes missing in India every eight minutes (Kaushik, 2022). According to a World Health Organization (WHO) report, India is the world's leading exporter of human organs, with the majority of these exports linked to illicit organ trade. The global rise in demand for human organs has led to an increase in organ-related crimes, with these offenses expanding in direct proportion to human rights violations, particularly affecting the most impoverished and marginalized communities.

Transplant activities under the threat of curtained organ trafficking:
Human organ trafficking is the dark consequence of transplantation of human organs. Organ transplants in India are regulated by Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act 1994 and Rules made there under. By the amendment in this legislation in 2011 various improvisation has been introduced these includes permission for organ swapping, which as in practice involve various questions open to threat of organ trafficking and organ sale.

There is another problem remain unsolved due to two other legalized practices under this statute one of them is live organ donation by non-relatives and second is transplant tourism, however both are directly prohibited but under the umbrella of section-9 (3) which includes the words "by reason of affection or attachment towards the recipient or for any other special reasons" these are permitted.

Organ Swapping: India has opened the purview of its legislation to adopt organ swap in Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act 2011. Organ swap transaction as it means is clear with the example that addresses the situation in which a patient in need of an organ may have a relative or friend willing to donate that organ (as a living donor), but ABO incompatibility prevents that person from donating. 26The researchers propose to pair two sets of people in which ABO incompatibility prevents donation, but where each of the prospective donors is compatible with the unrelated donor, and allow a "swap." Thus, Donor A and her relative Recipient A would be ABO incompatible, while a similar situation would exist between Donor B and Recipient B.

After verifying that Donor, A is compatible with Recipient B, and Donor B is compatible with Recipient A, all four people would be put in operating rooms in a single hospital for a kidney swap transaction. Kidneys would be simultaneously removed from the two donors and immediately transplanted into the unrelated donors. The operations take place simultaneously in order to prevent the possible problems, legal and otherwise, that might occur if one of the donations took place while the other did not.

Live Organ Donation by Non Relatives: Living organ donation has developed as an important alternative to cadaveric organ procurement. These efforts are stimulated by the fact that cadaveric organs cannot meet the demand, particularly in countries whose legislation does not use the 'presumed consent' or 'opting out' model. Indifference, doubts about the brain death concept, religious reservations about post mortem organ donation, and fear of possible abuses by irresponsible physicians are likely further factors contributing to the shortage of organs.

In its Transplantation of Human Organs Act of 1994, India requires that living donors have to be related to recipients - exceptions have to be authorized by a special committee at the level of the states.

The living donor has to be an adult of sound mind who voluntarily authorizes the donation in the form of a written consent (Art. 2). Both donor and recipient have to be informed of the risks and side effects by a medical practitioner. Commercial dealing in human organs is prohibited.

Only the federal laws of Germany and India require a particular relationship between donor and recipient and the legal majority of the living donor. In the U.S., anonymous donation is possible, and the use of children as living organ donors has been debated in a series of legal cases. The three legislations concur, however, on the prohibition of organ trading, therefore rejecting financial incentives as a motivation for donation. They also concur on the legal requirement of informed consent for organ removal from a living donor.

Not only medical law, but medical ethics as well generally considers free and informed consent – and therefore a donor's autonomous and voluntary decision – a necessary prerequisite for allowing a physician to hurt one person in order to help another.29 At the same time it is beyond doubt that the concept of informed consent is an ideal that is rarely if ever reached in practice.

Section 9 (1) of the THOA 1994 imposes restriction on live organ donation in this way Save as otherwise provided in sub-section (3), no human organ and tissue or both removed from the body of a donor before his death shall be transplanted into a recipient unless the donor is a near relative of the recipient. Only near relatives can donate their organs before death and who will be counted as near relative provided in section 2(I) - "near relative" means spouse, son, daughter, father, mother, brother, sister, grandfather, grandmother, grandson or granddaughter."

Further section 9 (3) of Transplantation of Human Organs Act, 1994 said:
"If any donor authorizes the removal of any of his human organs and tissues or both before his death under subsection (1) of section 3 for transplantation into the body of such recipient, not being a near relative, as is specified by the donor by reason of affection or attachment towards the recipient or for any other special reasons, such human organ and tissue or both shall not be removed and transplanted without the prior approval of the Authorisation Committee."

It provides exception to sub section 1 of section 9 of the same Act. There are enough evidences where commercial organ donors donate their organs to those to whom they never know of any reason but only for affection or attachment which arises suddenly and fuel is provided by the network of human organ traffickers.

Transplant Tourism: Under the General Agreement of Trade in Service (GATS), governments may choose to trade health services to achieve their national health objectives. Health service exports, through the treatment of foreign patients entering their territory (classified as "mode 2" or "consumption abroad"), are used by some countries as an instrument of economic development. The trade in transplant-related health services across borders, however, may result in the inequitable allocation of deceased donor organs and has also raised ethical concerns, especially when this occurs in a country where the regulatory frameworks to protect live organ donors from coercion, exploitation and physical harm are not well developed or implemented.

Transplant Tourism has become a connotation for organ trafficking. The United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS), recently defined transplant tourism as 'the purchase of a transplant organ abroad that includes access to an organ while bypassing laws, rules, or processes of any or all countries involved 31. However, not all medical tourism that entails the travel of transplant recipients or donors across national borders is organ trafficking.

Transplant tourism may be legal and appropriate. Examples include, when travel of a related donor and recipient pair is from countries without transplant services to countries where organ transplantation is performed or if an individual travel across borders to donate or receive a transplant via a relative. Any official regulated bilateral or multi-lateral organ sharing program is not considered transplant tourism if it is based on a reciprocated organ sharing programs among jurisdictions.

Judicial Interventions in Human Organ Trafficking: Landmark Rulings Shaping India's Legal Framework"

1. Kidney Racket Case (2008) – Supreme Court of India
   • Case Overview: In 2008, the Supreme Court of India took suo-motu cognizance of the illegal kidney trafficking racket operating in India.
   • This case arose out of media reports exposing a large-scale operation wherein individuals, particularly from economically marginalized communities, were illegally trafficked for kidney donations. The Court responded to widespread allegations that wealthy individuals were buying kidneys from poor people who were often coerced or misled into donating their organs.
   • Judgement and Impact: The Supreme Court directed strict enforcement of the Transplantation of Human Organs Act, 1994, which banned the sale and purchase of human organs. The Court emphasized the need for a national registry of organ donations and called for a comprehensive review of the system governing organ transplants. This case helped to establish the importance of transparency, consent, and stringent regulation of organ donations. Additionally, the Court mandated that organ transplant centers be scrutinized, and authorization committees be put in place to review each transplant request to ensure its legitimacy.
      
2. S. Ramaswamy v. Union of India (2009) – Supreme Court of India
   • Case Overview: In this case, the Supreme Court dealt with the alleged abuse and violations of the Transplantation of Human Organs Act by medical professionals and transplant centers. The case specifically focused on the systemic issues in regulating organ transplantations and the rising incidents of illegal kidney trade across the country.
   • Judgement and Impact: The Supreme Court ruled that hospitals and transplant centers must be strictly regulated and monitored. It also highlighted the importance of maintaining an Authorization Committee to review transplantations. The ruling stressed that only registered hospitals with appropriate procedures should be allowed to perform transplantations, and strict penalties would apply to violators of the law. The Court's intervention helped underscore the importance of preventing exploitation through better monitoring systems for organ transplants across India.
      
3. State of Maharashtra v. Prakash (2016) – Bombay High Court
   • Case Overview: This case involved the exposure of an illegal kidney transplantation racket operating in Maharashtra, where individuals were forcibly or deceitfully made to donate their organs. The case came to the attention of the Bombay High Court after a group of medical professionals, along with donors and recipients, were implicated in a racket that violated the Transplantation of Human Organs Act.
   • Judgement and Impact: The Bombay High Court stressed the need for immediate and strong enforcement of the laws governing organ transplants and directed local police authorities to take action against those involved in the illegal organ trade. The Court also called for greater scrutiny of hospitals performing organ transplants, ordering that forensic investigations be conducted to ensure no foul play was involved. Additionally, it urged state authorities to implement better regulatory mechanisms to prevent illegal organ trafficking, highlighting the role of hospitals in ensuring transparency in organ donations.
      
4. Health Ministry Guidelines on Organ Transplants (2004) – Government of India
   • Case Overview: Although not a judicial ruling per se, the Health Ministry's 2004 Guidelines were a direct result of the increasing incidents of illegal organ trade and the courts' insistence on stringent regulations. These guidelines were framed to provide a clear framework for organ donations, set up Authorization Committees, and ensure that organ transplantations adhered to legal, ethical, and medical standards.
   • Judgement and Impact: The Health Ministry guidelines were referred to in several Supreme Court and High Court cases, including Ravindra Shukla and P. Vijayakumar, to ensure that hospitals and transplant centers complied with the provisions of the Transplantation of Human Organs Act. The guidelines addressed issues such as informed consent, the documentation required for organ transplants, and how to prevent the exploitation of vulnerable donors.

Conclusion:
Human organ trafficking and transplantation in India present a complex challenge that touches on legal, ethical, and constitutional issues. While the Indian government has made efforts to regulate organ donation through laws like THOTA, significant challenges remain in terms of enforcement, public awareness, and the prevention of exploitation. Ethical concerns about the commodification of human organs, the violation of personal autonomy, and the exploitation of vulnerable populations further complicate the issue. The Indian Constitution, with its emphasis on the right to life and equality, provides a critical framework for addressing these challenges.

This research will explore these legal and ethical dimensions in greater detail, with a view to recommending reforms that can help create a more just and equitable system for organ donation and transplantation in India.

References:

• Basu, D. D. (2021). *Introduction to the Constitution of India*. Lexis Nexis.
• Transplantation of Human Organs Act, 1994, India (Official legal document).
• International Ethical Guidelines on Organ Trafficking; Cohen, I. G. (2009). *The Global Organ Trade: The Ethical and Legal Dimensions of Organ Trafficking*. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics.
• Human Trafficking and Illegal Organ Trade: Mathiesen, K. (2014). *Organ Trafficking and Transplantation: An Ethical Perspective*. International Journal of Organ Transplantation.
• Ethical and Human Rights Issues: S. S. H. Wang, et al. (2006). *Organ Trafficking and Human Rights Violations in India: A Global Perspective*. International Journal of Bioethics.
• Global Impact of Organ Trafficking: N. S. Scheper-Hughes, (2003). *The Global Traffic in Human Organs*. Current Anthropology.
• India as a Source of Organ Trafficking: Sharma, A., & Misra, R. (2010). *Illegal Organ Transplantation in India: The State of Affairs*. Journal of Law and Medicine.
• Case Law on Organ Trade: Case law referencing prosecutions under the Transplantation of Human Organs Act, 1994 (India).
• Policy Recommendations: "Combating Human Organ Trafficking: Policy Solutions" (World Health Organization or similar organizations' reports).
• Wikipedia

Written By:

• Kratik Jain
• Aditya Kothari
• Goral Kothari