This Article explores the pathways and connections between constitutionalism, the rule of law, and social justice in India. It argues that Ambedkar's vision and the constitutional framework he designed provide a strong foundation for moving from a formal to a substantive democracy. His vision was essentially about the transformation and democratization of society, and he saw the rule of law as a principal means to dismantle the totem of graded inequality, which was reflected at all levels within Hindu society.

This inequality, being structural, was both perpetuated and sustained by laws that were anathema to the concept of equal protection and discriminatory to those to whom they were applied. Such laws still exist in contemporary India, thus the potential for a more equal society through constitutionalism has not yet been realized.

Constitutionalism and social justice through legal empowerment have become the dominant themes in the human rights and development discourse. In 1950, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the principal architect of the Indian Constitution, proclaimed that "the establishment of political democracy would not automatically result in the establishment of a social and economic democracy. Without social and economic justice for the individual, political democracy would be valuable

Introduction
Constitutionalism in India is the bedrock of Indian democracy. It is a system of governance in which all political authority is derived from the Constitution and is exercised in accordance with established procedure and rules. The Constitution of India has been the legal framework for the government of India to protect the interest of its citizens and to promote social justice in the varied form of the word etched in the Preamble - Justice social, economic, and political. The solemn resolve is to create an egalitarian society.

Coming out of the prolonged and bitter colonial experience before independence, the human consciousness in the country gathered a new vigor and vitality with the realization that under the alien rulers, the fundamental human rights were denied. The experience was a sharp contrast to the life in the native state; therefore, the freedom struggle was marked by the end of the colonial rule and acceptance by the people of India of the Constitution as the fundamental law, capable of vindicating the basic values, and a commitment to promote the unity and integrity of the nation. Therefore, the Indian constitutional system finds its roots in the nationalist movement.

B. R Ambedkar, popularly known as Babasaheb, was the architect of the Indian Constitution and a champion of social justice for the oppressed classes. He was an eminent jurist, an astute politician, a seasoned parliamentarian, and a prolific writer. He was the first Ph.D. in economics and the first double doctorate holder in Economics and Law in South Asia. He had been the chairman of the constitution drafting committee and later, the first Law minister of independent India.

He also fought against the discriminatory social system, inhuman treatment against untouchables and women, and also supported the rights of labor. He was appointed as free India's first Law Minister and chairman of the committee for drafting the constitution. He was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, in 1990.

Background of Dr B. R Ambedkar

Dr. Ambedkar was born on April 14, 1891 at Mhow in the state of Madhya Pradesh. He was the fourteenth child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal and Bhimabai. The family of Sakpal was of Mahar caste which was considered as untouchable caste and was viewed as outside the varna system. Dr. Ambedkar had to face severe social discriminations from the very childhood.

In 1897, he lost his mother. His father was retired from service and the responsibility of family fell upon young Bhimrao. He obtained his early education at Satara. In 1908, he suffered the indignities of untouchability at the age of 17, when he went to Gujarat to Mavli to study at Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad High School. As he belonged to the mahar caste, social ban and untouchability were imposed on him. He was forced to sit on a gunny sack so that his dress would not pollute the students of higher caste.

After completing his school at Satara, he went to Elphinston College, Bombay for higher studies because of personal talent, hard work and scholarship from maharaja of Baroda. In 1913, he obtained his degree in Political Science and Economics from Bombay University. In the following year, he acquired an MA degree and won a Baroda state scholarship, which he was obliged to spend for further studies in USA, as the State Maharajas who had declared the untouchables as outcastes and treated them as aliens in their state societies.

Dr. Ambedkar became the choice of his community to achieve their liberation from chains of age long slavery and untouchability. He also became champion of Human Rights at international level for the upliftment of underprivileged and exploited classes. During 1913-1918, he was employed in the Princely State of Baroda as military secretary to the Gaekwad and preparation of a report on the condition of the people of this state. His experience of life in Baroda convinced him about the futility of reforming the higher castes throughout his life. Completed in 2 years time and Maharaja was so impressed that he sent it to Columbia University for a Ph.D.

Dr. Ambedkar was faced with the very painful experience of caste discrimination in the ship while going to USA. As an untouchable, he was treated with contempt and was not allowed to use the same table for meals by other passengers. This embittered him and he made a resolve to work for the betterment of the untouchables on his return to India.

In 1916, he enrolled at the Department of Sociology at Columbia University. In 1917, when the USA entered into World War I, he joined Elphinston College Bombay as a Professor of Political Economy as he was at his studies. This was the first time when a mahar was appointed as professor in the history of Elphinston College, but it caused great agitation and protest from the students and the professorship was snatched away from him. In 1918, he entered into the postgraduate studies in Economics at the London School of Economics and Political Science.

In 1920, Ambedkar was awarded the Doctorate by the University of Bombay for his thesis "Administration of the East India Company". He became the first Indian to obtain a doctorate in Economics abroad. During his stay in London, he was afflicted by the barometer of India's political developments and the factors responsible for the backwardness of the Indian economy. His quest for suitable weapons to overcome untouchability led him to Buddhism. He died in 1956, having lived a very active life in the quest of uplifting the oppressed classes.

Significance of Constitutionalism in India

Constitutionalism is a much contested and evolving legacy of the modern state system that has gripped a vast diversity of theoretical ground with contested and sometimes conflicting interpretations. However, for the purpose of this paper, constitutionalism would be viewed as a system of governance in which all political authority is subjected to legal limitations and established by law.

This is also the legacy that Dr. B.R. Ambedkar has left for India. In fact, given the diversity of Dr. Ambedkar's work, the most important aspect of his legacy in the present day for the future of India is his undying commitment to constructing a 'new' and 'better' India. In that, this pioneering work will focus on Ambedkar's vision of the new India, the method of achieving it, and why it is important with close reference to his own work rather than reference to the philosophies of other great men of history.

This fits under the broader realm of constitutionalism, of which the systematic lawmaking and the constitution itself is an essential tool in achieving such an end. A society where there is the rule of law and not of men is a vision Ambedkar has often propagated, and constitutionalism is the process and an end in itself to maintain that rule of law by latter generations.

Dr B. R Ambedkar's Contributions to Constitutionalism

Dr Ambedkar was a prominent jurist, economist, politician, and social reformer who campaigned resolutely for the rights of the untouchables and also those of the labor. For his efforts, he was appointed the Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee and oversaw the framing of the Indian Constitution. As Cain has noted, "a god-like man, building a temple... could have had few moments in history to match one when Ambedkar began work on the Indian Constitution." The drafting of the Constitution was a herculean task, fraught with complex problems.

Dr Ambedkar showed great determination in tackling the problems as they arose and in carrying the Assembly with him. His first major achievement was the preparation of a most comprehensive and highly complicated scheme of 'Fundamental Rights and Duties'. With a view to accomplishing the social revolution of which he had long been the champion and for the protection of the rights of the weakest of the weak, he pressed for and secured the inclusion in the Constitution of special provisions for the 'Scheduled Castes' and 'Scheduled Tribes'.

These provisions were to be in the nature of an affirmative action program with a view to raising the level of these depressed classes to that of the general community. In the economic sphere, there was nothing of greater consequence than the preparation of plans for the economic development of the Nation. Unfortunately, Dr Ambedkar did not live to see his vision of a fully developed India - he did not live to see an India when every man and woman will have a paid of work according to his capacity and to his needs. But for all this, the foundations were laid in the Indian Constitution.

1. Drafting the Constitution of India
   What commenced in December 1946 with the Objectives Resolution, led to the framing of the Indian Constitution by the Constituent Assembly that Dr. B.R. Ambedkar chaired created considerable space for Dr. Ambedkar to shape the constitutional and legal framework of India in a manner that was consistent with the values of justice and liberty that he believed essential to social reform.
   
   As an architect of the social change, he used law as an instrument of social change and fully anticipated that under a democratic political system and through the agency of a responsive state, law can be utilized to promote social transformation in a direction congruent with the values of justice, liberty and equality. While the expectations were in some respects utopian, it is very important to recognize the extent to which he has been able to insert in the Constitution and in state policy, mechanisms and provisions designed to combat social inequality and to improve the status of the socially excluded.
   
   The drafting of the Indian Constitution had been an amazing experience in the exercise of applied socio-political philosophy that the leaders of the nationalist movement had acquired through their nationalist struggle and the negotiations with the British for transfer of power. The social philosophy of the Constitution emerging from their collective deliberations and expressed in no uncertain terms in the Preamble to the Constitution.
   
   The Preamble sought to secure to all its citizens justice, liberty and equality and to promote among them fraternity to assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation. This is reminiscent of the principles embodied in the French Revolution of 1789 which was also echoed in the U.S.A. Constitution in 1787. The Indian leaders were indeed influenced by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the modern philosophy of Welfare State. The Indian Constitution which they gave to themselves was to be a social instrument for bringing about a social transformation with justice to all and an egalitarian social order.
    
2. Emphasis on Fundamental Rights
   Fundamental Rights is Ambedkar's blueprint of social revolution for the oppressed classes. It is the most outstanding and progressive part of the Indian Constitution. According to Granville Austin, "They are justiciable and defendable at the bar of the courts." These rights are meant for all the citizens, they are an end in themselves. The rights are sacrosanct and are beyond the reach of the State. In case of any violation, a citizen can directly approach the Supreme Court, which can issue writs for the enforcement of the rights.
   
   This was a novel and remarkable idea given by Ambedkar. The untouchables and other backward classes who are victims of social injustice are so weak and downtrodden that they are afraid even to lodge a complaint against the powerful oppressors. Hence provision of direct access to courts was specifically beneficial for them.
   
   The Indian Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly under the able guidance of Dr. B.R Ambedkar represents the epitome of the evolution of human rights. Being a student of history, Ambedkar was fully aware of the importance of human rights in the upliftment and betterment of the oppressed classes. He had dedicated his whole life fighting for the political rights, social justice and dignity of the untouchables and other socially and economically backward classes. Drafting a constitution for Independent India was the best possible opportunity that he could get to translate his revolutionary ideas of human rights into a reality[1].
   
   The concept of human rights has evolved through layers of history and political articulations. It has travelled through periods of despotism, feudalism, liberalism and now post-liberalism. Each age has contributed towards the evolution of human rights, till the recent human rights movement culminating into the 'primacy of human rights' in the present era of globalization. The term 'human rights' denote not only civil and political rights but also economic, welfare and cultural rights which are described as the right to live with human dignity.
    
3. Reservation Policy for Social Justice
   Following his vision for social justice and his firm belief in the efficacy of rights and law, Dr. Ambedkar planned to embody provisions for reservations for SCs/STs in the future constitution so as to advance the cause of social justice. Dr. Ambedkar was convinced that in order to bring the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes into the mainstream of Hindu society, it was necessary to adopt the policy of reservations of seats in the various legislatures for these classes, and separate electorate was the only effective system of representation.
   
   While he was willing to compromise on the issue of a settlement, owing to the threat of Gandhi's fast-unto-death, he ensured that the right to reserved seats, as opposed to the right to elect a candidate of a general electorate who would safeguard the interests of a particular community, be included in the Constitution. In 1942, during the debate on the future political framework of free India, the Scheduled Castes themselves made a strong plea for participation of the depressed classes in the executive and administrative machinery of the state to secure immediate relief from the deep-seated socio-economic disabilities. This led to the agreement with the British Government, embodied in the Scheduled Castes (SCs) Federation scheme for future Indian federation, which provided for substantial weightage of representation for the Scheduled Castes.
    

Impact of Dr B. R Ambedkar's Legacy on Social Justice in India

Ambedkar was a fierce advocate of political rights as the means to social rights. Drawing inspiration from the French Revolution, which in turn was inspired by the Glorious Revolution in England, Ambedkar advocated the necessity of the abolition of the Indian caste system and class system if modern India were to become a nation-state and a democracy.

He wanted to obtain an "equality of status and opportunity" for all the people in India and believed that the only way to achieve this was by granting political rights, i.e. the right to vote in elections, and the opportunity to be elected or appointed into political office. He was appointed as India's first Law Minister in the Cabinet of Jawaharlal Nehru. He was appointed Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee and was appointed to write India's new Constitution.

Ambedkar's first and most important task was to abolish the caste system from Indian society. With that in mind, Ambedkar abandoned the Hindu religion in 1956 and converted to Buddhism along with 300,000 followers. He thought that by doing so, it would be possible to release the untouchables from the clutches of the caste system. In this way, he was able to provide a certain direction, purpose, and establishment to the depressed classes in India. Ambedkar's efforts in the legal and constitutional sphere have contributed substantially to providing social justice and equal status to the weaker sections in India.

In his speech on the Adoption of the Constitution, he said that the Constitution was aiming at the establishment of a "Just Society" and such a society could not be established unless there is social and economic justice. Article 38 of the Constitution required the State to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting, as effectively as it may, a social order in which justice, social, economic, and political shall inform all the institutions of national life. He suggested that this could be done by legislating in favor of mandatory enactments, which would set apart a minimum wage level, provide for full employment, and abolish the system of economic exploitation from the common men.

1.  Empowering Marginalized Communities
   Similarly, there have been reservations for STs and other backward tribes in many areas, especially in education and politics. The particulars of ST reservation vary from state to state. Reservation has been less successful for STs than SCs as it has often been implemented in a diluted form or not at all. STs have the greatest educational deficiency of any demographic and there remain certain tribes which are less acculturated with little awareness of their rights and little means to seek justice when those rights are violated. Measures such as Sh. Ambedkar Hostels for ST students are an attempt to correct this problem.
   
   Scheduled Castes (SCs) now have at least 15% of all government jobs reserved for them and another 15% quota in all public sector universities. In addition, there are reserved seats for SCs and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in all the country's legislative bodies. These measures have substantially increased SC representation in positions of political and social power, albeit that these changes are confined to the public sector. This has resulted in some Dalits becoming influential political leaders. For example, the current President of India, K. R. Narayanan, is a Dalit. Reservation has also resulted in a burgeoning Dalit middle class.
   
   Dalits, who were traditionally oppressed in the caste-ridden society, were provided with greater opportunities for social mobility as Ambedkar's legacy provided for reserved seats in educational institutions and politics. This system of affirmative action, known as reservation, is highly controversial and has been the subject of debate in contemporary India. Some argue it to be an unjust system of reverse discrimination which perpetuates casteism, others see it as a necessary but not sufficient condition to correcting historical injustices and social disparities.
    
2.  Strengthening Democratic Institutions
   Dr. Ambedkar saw democratic institutions as key to securing justice for the oppressed. His role as the Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee consolidated and strengthened Indian democracy, providing a paradigm of social engineering. Faced with the immense task of transforming a society hitherto based on gross social inequality with an oppressive social order, Ambedkar found an opportunity to not only give the Dalits and other oppressed people of India a measure of social equality, but also a way to seek recompense if social equality was not given.
   
   Ambedkar approached the task of constitution making in a wider sense, a conscious attempt at reconstructing Indian society to bring about a more equitable distribution of social resources, power, and influence. There were numerous provisions in the constitution that were aimed at the abolition of untouchability, undertaking reparation, and providing safeguards to the socially discriminated people of India.
   
   The Constitution provided for reservation of seats for Dalits and Tribals in the various legislative bodies of the country, at the central and state levels. This was a fast track system of representation allocated to the depressed classes to get them up to speed in the policy and decision-making process of the country.
   
   This system has been in force for over 60 years and has been an effective means of instigating social mobility among the hitherto socially underprivileged. He was of the view that by the participation of the lowest in the political field, not only the political consciousness of the untouchables will be raised, but they will also get an opportunity to defend their rights and further the cause of their uplift.
    
3. Addressing Caste Discrimination and Inequality
   In India, the social stratification system of caste has resulted in the subjugation of certain groups of people, the lowest being the Dalits. It is here that the legacy of Ambedkar has arguably had the greatest impact in the form of social justice. Ambedkar himself was a Dalit and from this perspective sought to challenge the caste system and provide a means of liberation for those oppressed by it.
   
   His involvement in caste-based movements, such as the Mahad satyagraha or the temple entry movements, has left a lasting impact on low-caste people and he is celebrated each year at events such as Ambedkar Jayanti or the Chaitya Bhoomi movement. There are many aspects to Ambedkar's work towards a casteless society, however, this essay will focus on his attempts to provide legal recourse for those suffering from caste-based discrimination and his attempts to improve the economic and social standing of Dalits.
   
   The first of Ambedkar's attempts to challenge the caste system was to provide legal protection to those suffering from caste-based discrimination. This took the form of an independent electorate for Dalits and other untouchable castes, secured by the communal award of 1932 and later enshrined in the constitution as reservation of seats for scheduled castes and tribes. This positive discrimination was designed to facilitate Dalits' integration into Indian political life and to ensure their voices were heard in governance.
   
   This system of reservation still exists today and has been expanded to include reserved places for Dalits in educational institutions and reserved jobs in the public sector. Around this aspect of Ambedkar's work for the Dalits, there has been some controversy and criticism, with some arguing that it has failed to truly improve the situation of the Dalits and has only served to further entrench the idea of caste in Indian society. Nonetheless, it is clear that the provision of legal protection and special privileges for Dalits has improved their overall standing in India.
    
4. Promoting Gender Equality
   Ambedkar, born as an untouchable, advocated for the rights of Dalits and women throughout his entire life. He continually pushed for the common public to voice their opinions in a more liberal functioning society by joining him at various mass movements. His campaigns made an impact and in 1948 the government issued a new Hindu code, which would be advantageous in abolition of the caste system, child marriage, and untouchability.
   
   Ambedkar was primarily responsible for the existence of Article 17 of the Indian Constitution and in 1949, it was included within the document. This mandate abolished untouchability and despite the fact that untouchability was still practiced in Indian society after 1949, the official prohibition and the abolition of untouchability placed much criticism and dismay amongst the higher caste Hindus.
   
   Unfortunately, Ambedkar passed away prior to the time that the article was to be preserved and therefore in 1953 and 55, the parliament enacted laws that made the practice of untouchability punishable by law. During this time period, there was significant opposition from Hindu fundamentalist groups and it was said that India did not have sufficient economic power to implement such laws.
   
   In some isolated incidents, untouchability practices were tried in a court of law, but to this day relief has been uncommon. This is an issue which continues to be addressed, but with Ambedkar's persistence and his placing of untouchables in the same political and religious order as caste Hindus, untouchables now have more status and equality in their existing position today.

Challenges and Future Prospects

One of the principal factors that have impeded the spread of awareness of constitutional goals as well as of the existence of specific provisions and legislation to achieve these goals is the failure of successive governments to effectively publicize the constitutional and legislative measures aimed at achieving social justice. Steps should also be taken to introduce these concepts and provisions at an early stage in the school curriculum so as to instill these values and goals into the minds of children. Such measures, of course, would be vehemently opposed by certain sections of society who have a vested interest in maintaining the status quo.

It is clear that the adoption of a constitution envisioning social justice for all and envisaging specific goals to be realized within a defined time frame has not yet made an impact on the Indian mind. The lack of public awareness as to the very existence of such constitutional goals and provisions and of specific legislation to implement these policy measures is in itself a formidable barrier to the achievement of social justice.

Over the years, the notion of reservations as the sole constitutional method of providing social justice to the deprived classes has become deeply rooted in the Indian psyche. The fact that reservations were to be a temporary measure to jumpstart the process of achieving social justice and were provided for in a limited time frame appears to have been lost sight of. Today, reservations have become an end in themselves and there is even a growing trend to claim backwardness as a badge of pride.

1. Upholding Ambedkar's Vision in Contemporary India
   Although a large number of years have gone by since the time B.R. Ambedkar's vision of a casteless, classless society formulated in the National Conference on Labour held in Delhi in 1942, the social, political and economic conditions prevalent in the country have failed to uphold his dreams. If at all there has been any change, it has been for the worse.
   
   The policy of globalization being pursued by the state is fundamentally at odds with the basic principles espoused by him. It has further compounded social disparities and resulted in the residualization of class with the majority of the people reeling beneath poverty lines of different hues. This has put the struggle for an egalitarian social order under severe strain. With the withering away of the public sector and restrictive economic practices, the reserves of jobs available for the socially and educationally backward classes have dried up.
   
   High rates of privatization and the award of tenders and leases in respect natural resources have benefited the upper castes and the affluent classes to the detriment of the marginalized sections. The recent controversial move to introduce job quotas for faculty in central universities is a step in the right direction, but much more still needs to be done. The contentious nature of this provision, and the public response it invoked was an indicator that any policy contrary to the vested interests of the upper castes will not be implemented easily.
   
   A large number executive and legislative measures need to be taken to ensure that the recent favorable provisions and verdicts in relation to reservations fructify on the ground. This would require a very proactive involvement of the state in ensuring that there is proper representation of SC's, STs, OBCs and Minorities in all Government as well as private institutions. An independent reservations commission may even be set up to monitor the implementation of these policies.
    
2. Ensuring Effective Implementation of Constitutional Provisions
   Ensuring that the goals and directives of the Constitution are implemented is the biggest challenge. Ambedkar himself despaired of ever seeing the realization of the Constitution's lofty vision. That is not to say that there have not been important achievements. The Constitution has shown itself to be a powerful weapon which the oppressed can wield against the oppressors; a shield to protect them from arbitrary and discriminatory action. Successive governments have had to invoke the principles of the Constitution when social groups struggling for their rights have used it to demand justice.
   
   Sometimes they have done no more than pay lip service to it, but there have been occasions when they have acted on it in a positive manner. Electoral democracy in India has meant that at all levels of government, political power has had to be used to some extent in the furtherance of the interests of the lower castes who form the majority of the population. The past fifty years has seen the slow but irreversible empowerment of these people.
   
   It is true that since the mid-1960s there has been a backlash, with the resurgence of communal and caste identities which have taken on a new virulence because they have been challenged. This has made a mockery of simplistic models of 'modernization' which suggested that traditional ties of identity and patronage-based politics would wither away. And yet, those who have used the provisions of the Constitution for their own ends have had to justify their actions either by subverting it from within, or by claiming that it is in fact, their own cause which represents the 'national interest'. Even the extreme right which would happily replace the Constitution with a 'Hindu Rashtra' has had to pay lip service to it because it is recognized that the supreme charter alone has the legitimacy to articulate what the state stands for.
    

Conclusion
India's deeply entrenched socio-cultural practices, traditions, and religious beliefs have had a tremendous impact on the position of Dalits and their opportunities for social mobility. In many places, untouchability is still practiced, despite being outlawed by the Constitution. Dalits are frequently excluded from village life, prevented from entering temples, forced to eat and drink in separate utensils in schools, and are denied access to wells, often leading to strained relationships with higher-caste neighbors. These symbolic forms of exclusion are compounded by daily instances of verbal, physical, and emotional abuse. Such acts continue to be rationalized in terms of age-old beliefs in the inferiority of Dalits and as an expression of their 'proper place' in society.

Furthermore, employer perceptions of Dalits as 'dirty', 'lazy', and 'unintelligent' reinforce the already slim employment prospects for Dalits. This vicious cycle of marginalization and exclusion has made social mobility and assimilation nearly impossible.

The most blatant forms of caste-based discrimination and violence have received widespread international attention, and there have been many public efforts to promote social inclusion and tolerance of the Dalits. However, due to vested interest in maintaining the status quo, dominant caste resistance to change, and ineffective legal redress, progress has been slow.

In recent years, there have been several confrontations between Dalits and dominant castes over issues such as access to land, the right to minimum wages, and political representation which have turned into violent and often fatal clashes. International media attention and condemnation of such events has led the Indian government to initiate several nationwide and international programs to promote the rights and welfare of Dalits.

The most significant of these has been the effort to get Untouchability recognized as a human rights abuse at the UN World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, and related Intolerance in Durban, South Africa in 2001. This event has catalyzed efforts to eliminate untouchability and discrimination, but change will require attitudinal shifts in Indian society and a firm political commitment to social justice. A recent positive trend has been the growing assertion and self-organization of Dalits to claim their rights and entitlements, often overcoming local opposition and violence.

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End Notes:

1. Ibid