The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines collective bargaining as "negotiations about working conditions and terms of employment between an employer, a group of employers or one or more employers' organizations, on the one hand, and one or more workers' organizations, on the other, with a view to reaching agreement." This definition highlights the key elements of collective bargaining, including the parties involved (employers and workers' organizations), the subject matter (working conditions and terms of employment), and the aim (reaching agreement through negotiations).

The ILO considers collective bargaining to be a fundamental right of workers, as articulated in its core conventions, particularly Convention No. 98 (Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949). The organization emphasizes the importance of collective bargaining in promoting social justice, improving working conditions, and achieving fair wages, while also contributing to economic efficiency and stability.

Overall, the ILO's definition and framework for collective bargaining underscore its significance in advancing labor rights, fostering dialogue between employers and workers, and promoting sustainable and inclusive development.

Further, ILO Convention No. 154 defines collective bargaining as referring to:
All negotiations which take place between an employer, a group of employers or one or more employers' organisations, on the one hand, and one or more workers' organisations, on the other, for:

1. determining working conditions and terms of employment; and/or
2. regulating relations between employers and workers; and/or
3. regulating relations between employers or their organisations and a workers' organisation or workers' organisations."

Definitions by Economists:

1. John T. Dunlop: Dunlop, a prominent labor economist, defined collective bargaining as "a process of rule-making, enforced by the economic power of formation and administration of a collective agreement concerning working conditions and terms of employment.
    
2. John R. Commons: Commons, a pioneering figure in institutional economics, described collective bargaining as "the process of changing from one set of institutions to another; of substituting a more effective system of cooperation between employers and employees for the ineffective competitive struggle between two hostile groups, each working for its own immediate advantage."
    
3. Richard A. Lester: Lester, an influential labor economist, viewed collective bargaining as "a method of fixing the terms of employment by negotiations between organized bodies of employers and employees. It is essentially a substitute for competition in the labor market.

Right to Collectively Bargain
The right to collective bargaining is a fundamental human right recognized internationally, affirmed by organizations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO) and enshrined in various national labor laws and constitutions. It grants workers the freedom to organize into unions or other representative bodies and to negotiate collectively with employers regarding their terms and conditions of employment.

Collective bargaining allows workers to leverage their collective strength to address workplace issues, such as wages, working hours, benefits, and job security, in a more equitable manner. By engaging in collective bargaining, workers can achieve greater fairness, dignity, and empowerment in the workplace. This right not only benefits workers but also contributes to stable labor relations, social cohesion, and economic development. Recognizing and protecting the right to collective bargaining is essential for upholding labor rights, promoting democracy, and fostering inclusive economic growth.

Objective of Collective Bargaining

For Employees:

1. Negotiating Better Wages and Benefits: Employees aim to negotiate for higher wages, improved benefits such as healthcare, retirement plans, and other allowances to enhance their financial well-being and standard of living.
2. Ensuring Fair Working Conditions: Employees seek to negotiate for safe and healthy working conditions, reasonable working hours, adequate rest periods, and measures to address workplace hazards and concerns.
3. Enhancing Job Security: Employees aim to negotiate for job security provisions, including protections against arbitrary dismissal, lay-offs, and outsourcing, to provide stability and assurance in their employment.
4. Improving Career Development Opportunities: Employees may negotiate for opportunities for training, skill development, career advancement, and promotion pathways to enhance their professional growth and prospects within the organization.
5. Protecting Rights and Dignity: Employees seek to negotiate for the protection of their rights, including freedom from discrimination, harassment, and unfair treatment, ensuring dignity and respect in the workplace.
6. Establishing Grievance Procedures: Employees may negotiate for effective grievance procedures and mechanisms for resolving disputes and conflicts in a fair and timely manner.
7. Balancing Work-Life Integration: Employees may negotiate for flexible work arrangements, parental leave, childcare support, and other measures to achieve a better balance between work responsibilities and personal life commitments.

For Employers:

1. Cost Management: Employers aim to negotiate labor costs in a manner that allows them to maintain profitability and competitiveness in their respective industries. This includes seeking to control wages, benefits, and other labor-related expenses.
2. Productivity Improvements: Employers may seek to negotiate for provisions that enhance workforce productivity, such as flexible working arrangements, performance-based incentives, and training programs aimed at improving employee skills and efficiency.
3. Operational Flexibility: Employers may aim to negotiate for flexibility in work arrangements, staffing levels, and job assignments to better adapt to changing market conditions, technological advancements, and production requirements.
4. Ensuring Compliance with Regulations: Employers seek to negotiate agreements that ensure compliance with labor laws, regulations, and industry standards while also minimizing legal risks and liabilities.
5. Managing Labor Relations: Employers aim to negotiate agreements that promote stable and constructive labor relations, reducing the likelihood of workplace conflicts, strikes, and disruptions that could adversely impact operations and reputation.
6. Retaining Talent: Employers may negotiate for provisions aimed at attracting and retaining skilled employees, including competitive compensation packages, career development opportunities, and a positive work environment.
7. Achieving Long-Term Stability: Employers may seek to negotiate agreements that provide long-term stability and predictability in labor costs and relations, allowing for effective strategic planning and investment.

Legal Perspective
In India, collective bargaining is primarily governed by the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, which provides the legal framework for resolving disputes between employers and workers. Additionally, there are other laws and regulations that influence collective bargaining practices in the country. Here are some key laws relating to collective bargaining in India:

1. Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 (IDA): The IDA is the primary legislation governing industrial relations and collective bargaining in India. It defines various terms related to industrial disputes, outlines procedures for dispute resolution, and provides for the registration and recognition of trade unions. Sections 2(p), 2(q), 10, 11, and 18 of the IDA are particularly relevant to collective bargaining.
    
2. Trade Unions Act, 1926: The Trade Unions Act regulates the formation, registration, and functioning of trade unions in India. It provides legal recognition to trade unions and grants them certain rights, including the right to negotiate and collectively bargain with employers. Sections 2(h), 3, and 12 of the Trade Unions Act are pertinent to collective bargaining.
    
3. Minimum Wages Act, 1948: The Minimum Wages Act establishes minimum wage rates for different categories of workers in various industries. While the act itself does not directly address collective bargaining, negotiations between employers and workers often include discussions on wage rates and other remuneration issues covered by this legislation.
    
4. Payment of Bonus Act, 1965: The Payment of Bonus Act mandates the payment of annual bonuses to eligible employees in certain establishments. While the act primarily deals with bonus calculations and eligibility criteria, negotiations between employers and workers may address bonus-related issues during collective bargaining.
    
5. Factories Act, 1948: The Factories Act sets out various provisions related to the health, safety, and welfare of workers employed in factories. While collective bargaining may not be explicitly mentioned in this legislation, negotiations between employers and workers may address workplace safety and health concerns covered by the act.
    
6. State-Specific Labor Laws: In addition to the above-mentioned central laws, each Indian state may have its own labor laws and regulations governing industrial relations and collective bargaining. These laws may include provisions related to trade union recognition, collective agreements, and dispute resolution mechanisms.

Constitutional Perspective
In the Indian constitutional perspective, the right to collective bargaining is not explicitly mentioned as a fundamental right. However, it is derived from broader constitutional principles and statutory provisions related to freedom of association, freedom of speech, and the right to form unions.

1. Freedom of Association (Article 19): Article 19(1)(c) of the Indian Constitution guarantees to all citizens the right to form associations or unions. This fundamental right encompasses the freedom to form trade unions and engage in collective bargaining activities. The Supreme Court of India has recognized collective bargaining as an essential aspect of the right to form associations.
    
2. Right to Equality (Article 14): Article 14 of the Constitution ensures equality before the law and equal protection of laws. Collective bargaining helps in achieving equality in the workplace by empowering workers to negotiate with employers on an equal footing, addressing disparities in bargaining power.
    
3. Directive Principles of State Policy (Article 43): Article 43 of the Constitution directs the state to ensure just and humane conditions of work and to promote social and economic justice. Collective bargaining contributes to the realization of these principles by facilitating negotiations between employers and workers to establish fair wages, working conditions, and other employment terms.
    
4. Industrial Disputes Act, 1947: While not a constitutional provision, the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, provides a legal framework for collective bargaining in India. It regulates the resolution of disputes between employers and workers, including provisions for collective bargaining, conciliation, and arbitration.
    
5. Judicial Interpretation: The Indian judiciary has recognized the significance of collective bargaining in promoting industrial peace, social justice, and harmonious labor relations. Courts have upheld the rights of workers to engage in collective bargaining and have intervened to protect these rights when necessary.

Global Perspective
In the United States, collective bargaining is protected by the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) of 1935. Labor unions negotiate with employers to establish collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) covering wages, benefits, working conditions, and other terms of employment. The process often involves mediation, arbitration, and sometimes strikes or lockouts.

In Germany, collective bargaining is governed by sectoral agreements negotiated between employers' associations and trade unions. These agreements, known as Tarifverträge, set industry-wide standards for wages, working hours, and other employment conditions. Collective bargaining plays a central role in the country's system of industrial relations, known as the "social partnership."

In Japan, collective bargaining is conducted primarily at the enterprise level between management and enterprise-based unions known as "enterprise unions." The process emphasizes consensus-building and maintaining harmonious labor relations. Collective agreements typically cover wages, bonuses, working hours, and other working conditions.

Australia's Fair Work Act 2009 regulates collective bargaining and industrial relations in the country. The process involves negotiations between employers and unions, with the aim of reaching enterprise agreements that set out terms and conditions of employment. The Fair Work Commission provides mediation and arbitration services to assist parties in resolving disputes.

In the Netherlands, collective bargaining takes place at both sectoral and enterprise levels. Sectoral agreements, negotiated between employers' organizations and trade unions, set minimum standards for wages and working conditions across industries. Enterprise-level agreements supplement these standards and address specific workplace issues.

Canada's collective bargaining landscape varies by province and industry. The process is governed by provincial labor relations legislation and involves negotiations between unions and employers, often with the assistance of government-appointed mediators or arbitrators. Collective agreements in Canada cover a range of issues, including wages, benefits, job security, and workplace health and safety.

Case laws on collective bargaining
There are several famous case laws on the process of collective bargaining, some of them are as follows:

Ram Prasad Vishwakarma v. Industrial Tribunal (1961)
In this case, the Supreme Court's bench consisted of Justice Gupta and Justice K.C. Das, observed that the labourers found it very difficult to negotiate the terms and conditions of their contracts. However, after the concept of trade unions and collective bargaining was brought into play, the situation changed and employees got the chance to voice out their opinions in a better manner.

All India Bank Employees' Association v. N.I. Tribunal (1962)
In the case of All India Bank Employees' Association v. N.I. Tribunal (1962), the Supreme Court dictated the rights of the members of the trade unions in accordance with the Fundamental Right to Freedom of speech and expression under Article 19(1)(c), and started the following to be the rights:

1. The rights of the members of the union to meet,
2. The right of the members to travel or move from one place to another,
3. The right of the members to discuss and address their problems and share their point of view and opinions, and
4. The right of the members to hold property.

Further, this case also stated that strikes by trade unions may be controlled or restricted by appropriate industrial legislation.

Bharat Iron Works v. Bhagubhai Balubhai Patel (1976)
In the case of Bharat Iron Works v. Bhagubhai Balubhai Patel (1976), the Supreme Court via the Bench of Justice Goswami and Justice P.K. stated that the concept of collective bargaining is a part of the modern-day concept of the welfare state and that such a method should be exercised in a healthy manner and in a way where there is cooperation and respect between employees and employers. Further, the justices also claimed that negotiation between the management and the trade union aids in reaching a settlement in matters of several industrial disputes.

B. R. Singh v. Union of India (1989)
In this case, the Supreme Court recognized "strike" to be a mode of resolving disputes and grievances of the workers.

Hindustan Lever Ltd. v. Hindustan Lever Employees Union (1999)
The Courts have from time to time reiterated the importance of collective bargaining between workers and employers in modern economic life and so is the same in the case of Hindustan Lever Ltd. v. Hindustan Lever Employees Union (1999). Labourers, workers and employees faced significant hardships like poor work conditions ,low wage rates, etc., before the advent of the process of collective bargaining; however, as the country's trade unions developed and advanced, collective bargaining started becoming the norm.

Further, the case also points out that employers found it easy to deal with the representatives of workers rather than individual employees themselves and this helped them in multiple ways like amending contracts, taking disciplinary action against one or more workers, and in resolving other industrial disputes.

References:

• Collective Bargaining in India: A Study of Its Practice in the Indian Engineering Industry by R.S. Deshpande.
• Reports from the International Labour Organization (ILO) on collective bargaining practices worldwide
• Annual reports or publications from national labor departments or ministries
• The International Labour Organization (ILO) website, which provides extensive resources on collective bargaining and labor rights
• Publications from the World Bank, the World Economic Forum, and other international organizations on labor market trends and policies
• Websites and publications from major trade unions and employer organizations, such as the AFL-CIO, the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), and the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI)