India's nuclear doctrine represents a critical aspect of its national security strategy. Shaped by historical, geopolitical, and strategic considerations, India's approach to nuclear weapons has evolved significantly since its first nuclear test in 1974. This comprehensive analysis explores India's nuclear doctrine, including its principles, evolution, and the debates surrounding it.

It examines the historical context of India's nuclear program, the development of its nuclear arsenal, the evolution of its nuclear doctrine, and the debates associated with key elements such as No First Use (NFU) policy, minimum credible deterrence (MCD), civilian control, regional dynamics, and engagement with international conventions and agreements. By delving into these aspects, this study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of India's nuclear posture and the complexities inherent in its nuclear strategy.

Introduction
India's nuclear doctrine stands as a cornerstone of its national security strategy, reflecting the nation's historical trajectory, strategic imperatives, and regional dynamics. Since its emergence as a nuclear-armed state, India has grappled with the formulation and evolution of its nuclear doctrine, navigating a complex geopolitical landscape while balancing its security interests with global non-proliferation norms.

The journey towards India's nuclear doctrine traces back to pivotal moments in its history, from the landmark "Smiling Buddha"1 nuclear test in 1974 to the series of tests conducted during "Operation Shakti"2 in 1998. These events marked significant milestones in India's nuclear trajectory, signaling its entry into the exclusive club of nuclear-armed nations and reshaping the dynamics of regional security in South Asia.

At the heart of India's nuclear doctrine lie key principles that guide its nuclear posture and policies. The doctrine's formulation is underpinned by the principles of No First Use (NFU)3, Minimum Credible Deterrence (MCD), and civilian control over nuclear assets. These principles reflect India's commitment to responsible nuclear behavior, deterrence against potential adversaries, and democratic oversight of its nuclear arsenal.

However, India's nuclear doctrine is not immune to debates and discussions, both within the country and on the international stage. Questions surrounding the credibility of the NFU policy, the sufficiency of India's deterrent capabilities, and the implications of nuclear modernization efforts have sparked intense scrutiny and dialogue. Moreover, India's engagement with international non-proliferation regimes and its aspirations for global nuclear governance further add layers of complexity to the discourse surrounding its nuclear doctrine.

As India continues to navigate its role as a nuclear-armed state, understanding its nuclear doctrine and the debates associated with it becomes increasingly imperative. This research seeks to delve into the intricacies of India's nuclear doctrine, exploring its historical evolution, key principles, strategic considerations, and the debates that shape its nuclear posture. By shedding light on India's nuclear doctrine, this study aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of India's nuclear strategy and its implications for regional and global security in the 21st century.

Historical Context
India's entry into the nuclear arena was marked by the peaceful nuclear explosion of 1974, conducted under the leadership of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The test, codenamed "Smiling Buddha," demonstrated India's nuclear capabilities but was officially declared as intended for peaceful purposes. However, it drew international attention and raised concerns about nuclear proliferation. The 1974 test laid the foundation for India's nuclear program, setting the stage for future developments and shaping its strategic thinking regarding nuclear weapons.

Early Nuclear Program (1940s-1974):
India's interest in nuclear technology dates back to the 1940s when Homi Bhabha, known as the father of India's nuclear program, laid the foundation for India's nuclear research.

India's nuclear ambitions were driven by both civilian and military considerations. The Atomic Energy Establishment4, Trombay (AEET) was established in 1954 to spearhead India's nuclear research efforts.

Despite initial focus on peaceful uses of nuclear energy, India's nuclear program gradually acquired military dimensions, especially in response to security concerns arising from regional conflicts and geopolitical developments.

Smiling Buddha and Informal Nuclear Policy (1974-1998):
India conducted its first nuclear test, code-named "Smiling Buddha5," in May 1974. The test was presented as a peaceful nuclear explosion for civilian purposes but signaled India's nuclear capabilities to the world.

Following the 1974 test, India adopted an informal nuclear policy characterized by ambiguity and strategic restraint. India refrained from weaponizing its nuclear program or declaring a formal nuclear doctrine during this period.

The period between 1974 and 1998 saw sporadic discussions within India's strategic community about the need for a clear nuclear doctrine and policy framework to guide India's nuclear posture.

Pokhran-II Tests and Formal Nuclear Doctrine (1998):
In May 1998, India conducted a series of nuclear tests, code-named "Operation Shakti61," at the Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. The tests included both fission and fusion devices and demonstrated India's nuclear weapons capabilities.

The 1998 tests marked a significant shift in India's nuclear policy and posture. India declared itself a nuclear-armed state and announced its intention to maintain a credible nuclear deterrent.

In the aftermath of the Pokhran-II tests, India initiated efforts to formalize its nuclear doctrine to provide clarity and transparency regarding its nuclear policies and posture.

Formalization Of India's Nuclear Doctrine (Late 1990s-Early 2000s):
In the aftermath of the 1998 tests, India undertook efforts to formalize its nuclear doctrine and articulate its strategic objectives.

Key elements of India's nuclear doctrine included:

• No First Use (NFU) Policy: India declared a policy of NFU7, stating that it would not be the first to use nuclear weapons in a conflict.
• Minimum Credible Deterrence8 (MCD): India aimed to maintain a credible nuclear deterrent with the minimum necessary force levels.
• Civilian Control: India emphasized civilian control over its nuclear arsenal, with final decision-making authority resting with the political leadership.

India's nuclear doctrine provided clarity and transparency regarding its nuclear policies and posture.

Evolution and Adaptation (2000s-Present):
Since the formalization of its nuclear doctrine, India's nuclear posture has evolved to address emerging security challenges and technological advancements.

The NFU policy and MCD principle have remained central to India's nuclear doctrine. However, there have been debates and discussions about their implementation and relevance in changing security environments.

India has sought to modernize its nuclear arsenal, enhance command and control systems, and strengthen its nuclear triad capabilities to ensure the credibility of its deterrent posture.

India's engagement with the international community, including efforts to strengthen nuclear security and non-proliferation, has also influenced the evolution of its nuclear doctrine.

Debates Associated With India's Nuclear Doctrine
India's nuclear doctrine has been a subject of debate and discussion both within the country and in the international arena. Various aspects of India's nuclear policy, including the No First Use (NFU) policy, Minimum Credible Deterrence (MCD), regional dynamics, and engagement with international agreements, have been sources of contention.

Here are some key debates related to India's nuclear doctrine:

1. No First Use (NFU) Policy:
   • Proponents: Supporters argue that the NFU policy enhances regional stability by reducing the likelihood of nuclear conflict. It signals India's commitment to responsible nuclear behavior and contributes to a more predictable and secure environment.
   • Critics: Critics question the credibility of the NFU policy, especially in the face of evolving security challenges. They argue that maintaining flexibility in nuclear posture, including the option of a preemptive strike, could strengthen India's deterrent capabilities.
      
2. Minimum Credible Deterrence (MCD):
   • Supporters: Advocates argue that MCD is a pragmatic approach, emphasizing the need for a sufficient and credible nuclear deterrent to dissuade potential adversaries. It aims to prevent nuclear aggression by ensuring that the costs of an attack outweigh any potential benefits.
   • Opponents: Opponents raise concerns about the ambiguity surrounding the concept of MCD. Some argue that the lack of specific numerical thresholds or definitions makes it challenging to assess the sufficiency of India's nuclear arsenal.
      
3. Nuclear Modernization:
   • Advocates: Supporters of nuclear modernization emphasize the importance of keeping pace with technological advancements to maintain a credible deterrent. They argue that a modernized and diversified nuclear arsenal is essential to address emerging threats and challenges.
   • Skeptics: Skeptics question the need for extensive modernization efforts, expressing concerns about an arms race, resource allocation, and the potential impact on regional stability. They argue for a focus on disarmament and arms control instead.
4. Engagement with International Conventions:
   • Supporters: Proponents of increased engagement with international agreements, such as the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) and the Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT), argue that it enhances India's global standing and contributes to non-proliferation efforts.
   • Skeptics: Skeptics express reservations about joining certain agreements, citing concerns about national security and the perceived discriminatory nature of some international treaties. They argue that India's engagement should be based on reciprocity and mutual benefit.
      
5. Regional Dynamics - Pakistan and China:
   • NFU vis-à-vis Pakistan: The NFU policy in the context of India-Pakistan relations has been a contentious issue. Some argue that maintaining the NFU policy vis-à-vis Pakistan contributes to regional stability, while others question its relevance in a scenario where India faces threats from multiple fronts.
   • China's Growing Arsenal: The evolving nuclear capabilities of China have prompted debates about India's nuclear doctrine. Some argue for adjustments to India's posture to address the changing strategic landscape, while others emphasize the importance of a consistent and principled approach.
      
6. Global Non-Proliferation Regime:
   • NSG Membership: The debate around India's membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) reflects differing opinions on India's role in the global non-proliferation regime. Proponents argue that inclusion would facilitate nuclear cooperation, while opponents express concerns about potential risks associated with India's nuclear program.
      
7. Nuclear Testing Moratorium:
   • Maintaining the Moratorium: Debates persist about whether India should maintain its voluntary moratorium on nuclear testing. Supporters argue that continuing the moratorium contributes to global non-proliferation efforts, while critics question its impact on India's security and technological capabilities.

These debates underscore the complexity of India's nuclear posture and the challenges of balancing national security imperatives with global expectations and regional dynamics. As strategic landscapes evolve, ongoing discussions will likely shape the trajectory of India's nuclear doctrine.

International Conventions And Agreements
India's nuclear doctrine and practices intersect with various international conventions and agreements related to nuclear weapons and non-proliferation efforts.
Some key conventions and agreements include:

• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): India is not a signatory to the NPT, which aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and promote disarmament. India's refusal to sign the treaty stems from its perception of the NPT as discriminatory, particularly regarding the distinction between nuclear-armed states and non-nuclear-weapon states.
   
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT): India has not ratified the CTBT, which prohibits all nuclear test explosions. India's stance on the CTBT reflects concerns about its implications for national security and the perceived lack of progress towards disarmament by nuclear-armed states.
   
• Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT): India supports negotiations for an FMCT, which aims to halt the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons. However, progress towards concluding the treaty has been slow, with challenges related to verification mechanisms and concerns about existing stockpiles.
   
• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Safeguards: India maintains safeguards agreements with the IAEA for its civilian nuclear facilities. However, India's military nuclear facilities remain outside the purview of IAEA safeguards, contributing to transparency and verification challenges.
   
• Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG): India's nuclear cooperation efforts are influenced by its desire for membership in the NSG, which governs nuclear exports and aims to prevent proliferation. India seeks NSG membership as part of its broader integration into the international nuclear order and access to civilian nuclear technology and resources.
   
• Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START): While India is not a party to START, the treaty between the United States and Russia aims to reduce and limit strategic nuclear arms. India's nuclear doctrine and strategic posture are influenced by developments in major nuclear-armed states and their arms control agreements.
   
• United Nations Security Council Resolutions: India's nuclear doctrine and behavior are subject to international scrutiny, including through United Nations Security Council (UNSC) resolutions related to nuclear proliferation and non-proliferation efforts. India's adherence to UNSC resolutions reflects its commitment to international norms and security objectives.

In contrast, India is party to several international treaties and agreements that shape its nuclear policies and engagements:

• Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)14: India is a party to the BWC, which prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons. India's adherence to the BWC reflects its commitment to global efforts to prevent the use of biological weapons.
   
• Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)15: India is a party to the CWC, which prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons. India's participation in the CWC underscores its commitment to disarmament and non-proliferation efforts.
   
• Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT): While India is not a signatory to the NPT, it engages with the treaty as a nuclear-armed state outside the treaty framework. India's engagement with the NPT reflects its commitment to non-proliferation and disarmament objectives, albeit through alternative mechanisms and frameworks.
   
• International Nuclear Energy Framework16: India engages with various international frameworks and agreements related to nuclear energy cooperation, safety, and security. These include partnerships with organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency17 (IAEA) and participation in initiatives promoting peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

Conclusion
In conclusion, India's nuclear doctrine represents a critical aspect of its national security strategy, shaped by historical, geopolitical, and strategic considerations. The formulation and evolution of India's nuclear doctrine have been marked by significant milestones, from its early nuclear tests to the formalization of key principles such as No First Use (NFU) and Minimum Credible Deterrence (MCD). Throughout its journey, India's nuclear policy has been subject to intense debates and discussions, both domestically and internationally.

The debates surrounding India's nuclear doctrine highlight the complexities inherent in nuclear deterrence, regional security dynamics, and engagement with the global non-proliferation regime. Key areas of contention include the credibility of the NFU policy, the sufficiency of India's deterrent posture, the implications of nuclear modernization efforts, and the country's role in international non-proliferation initiatives.

Despite these debates, India's nuclear doctrine has remained rooted in principles of responsible nuclear stewardship, civilian control, and adherence to international norms. The NFU policy, coupled with the commitment to MCD, underscores India's commitment to maintaining strategic stability and preventing nuclear conflict in South Asia and beyond. Moreover, India's engagement with international agreements and organizations reflects its aspirations for global leadership in nuclear governance and disarmament.

Looking ahead, India's nuclear doctrine will continue to evolve in response to emerging security challenges, technological advancements, and shifts in the global strategic landscape. As India navigates its role as a responsible nuclear-armed state, ongoing debates surrounding its nuclear doctrine will shape its strategic behavior, regional dynamics, and engagement with the international community.

In conclusion, a nuanced understanding of India's nuclear doctrine and the debates associated with it is essential for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners seeking to promote peace, security, and stability in the nuclear age. By critically examining the principles, evolution, and implications of India's nuclear doctrine, stakeholders can contribute to informed dialogue and constructive engagement on nuclear issues at the regional and global levels.
Written By: Vinayak Rastogi