This research paper examines the impact of free trade agreements (FTAs) on production labor, focusing on the historical context of NAFTA and the subsequent USMCA. FTAs aim to reduce trade obstacles, allowing goods and services to flow across borders with minimal government interference. Historically, FTAs have significantly influenced agricultural trade and production, particularly in developing nations where farming is a crucial economic pillar.

The paper analyzes the transformative effects of NAFTA on the agricultural sector, using avocados and shoes as case studies. NAFTA brought positive changes in American eating habits, increasing avocado consumption and diversifying product availability. However, industries with wage disparities faced challenges, leading to job losses in specific regions.

The introduction of USMCA in 2020 replaced NAFTA, intending to modernize and update North American trade relations. Key features and changes introduced by USMCA, including rules of origin for automobiles, labor provisions, access to dairy markets, intellectual property, digital trade, pharmaceuticals, environmental provisions, and dispute resolution, are discussed.

The impact of USMCA is examined, with a focus on its unique veto power over Canada's trade agenda, concerns about dairy and poultry concessions, and the potential positive shift in assets returning to Canada. The paper also explores the political implications of the USMCA renegotiation, highlighting the complexities and concessions made during the negotiations

Statement of Problem:
The renegotiation and replacement of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) marked a significant shift in North American trade relations. However, the implications and consequences of this transition on various sectors, industries, and the overall economic landscape of the involved countries remain a complex and multifaceted issue. This research aims to address the overarching problem of understanding the impact of NAFTA and USMCA on trade, economic development, labor markets, and specific industries in the United States, Mexico, and Canada

Objective of the Research:
Analyzing and evaluating the effects of transitioning from NAFTA to USMCA on the economies of the United States, Mexico, and Canada.

Providing a nuanced understanding of changes brought about by these trade agreements, with a focus on trade regulations, job markets, industrial competitiveness, and socio-economic well-being.

Research Questions:

• Identifying key differences between NAFTA and USMCA in trade regulations, industry-specific provisions, and labor standards.
• Assessing the impact of NAFTA on job markets and industries in the United States, Mexico, and Canada, and how these dynamics have evolved under USMCA.
• Analyzing the influence of NAFTA and USMCA on specific industries like agriculture, manufacturing, and services, with attention to regional disparities.
• Examining macroeconomic effects of the transition, including changes in GDP, foreign direct investment, and overall economic growth.
• Comparing the treatment of labor rights and environmental considerations in USMCA versus NAFTA, and exploring implications for workers and environmental sustainability.

Research Methodology:
This research will employ a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative analyses. Qualitative methods will involve an in-depth review of legal texts, policy documents, and academic literature related to NAFTA and USMCA. Quantitative methods will include statistical analyses of economic indicators, trade data, and employment figures to assess the impact on various sectors. Case studies and comparative analyses will be used to provide a more nuanced understanding of specific industries and regions.

Scope and Limitation of the Study:

• Limited to analyzing economic and trade-related aspects of NAFTA and USMCA on the United States, Mexico, and Canada.
• Excludes broader geopolitical implications and political considerations.
• Subject to constraints related to data availability and the dynamic nature of economic conditions.
• Primarily focuses on the post-implementation period of USMCA, potentially missing long-term effects unfolding in subsequent years.

Introduction
NAFTA, the North American free trade agreement, a free trade agreement between USA, Canada and Mexico was initially aimed at expanding exports and creating jobs, generating excitement among many, negotiated and signed during the Trump administration in 2018 and officially went into effect on July 1, 2020. USMCA aimed to modernize and update the trade relations between the three North American countries.

On the positive side, NAFTA dramatically changed Americans' eating habits, particularly their love for avocados. Before NAFTA, avocados were largely seasonal in the US, coming mainly from California and Florida. However, Mexican avocados, which were previously banned from the US, became available year-round thanks to NAFTA. This change in availability led to an explosion in avocado consumption, benefitting both American consumers and Mexican growers.

NAFTA's broader impact extended beyond avocados. Americans also started consuming more Mexican beer, mangoes, and fresh produce like bell peppers and cucumbers from Canada. This reflected the principle of international trade: nations specialize in what they're good at and exchange those products with others. In this case, the US excelled in corn production, exporting it to Mexico, while Mexico became a major supplier of avocados to the US.

However, the story was different for industries where both countries were equally capable but had wage disparities. Before NAFTA, Mexican manufacturers faced high tariffs when exporting to the US, making them less competitive. For instance, shoe manufacturers in the US had substantial tariffs on their products. NAFTA gradually reduced these tariffs to zero over a decade, making it more cost-effective to produce these goods in Mexico. As a result, jobs in these industries, including related jobs in the US, disappeared, particularly in regions reliant on them.

NAFTA's impact was thus a double-edged sword. While it benefited consumers by providing access to cheaper goods and expanding the variety of products available, it also led to job losses, particularly in industries where Mexico had a cost advantage. These losses were concentrated in specific regions, creating deep economic pain for affected communities.

The New Nafta And Its Impact

The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), also known as CUSMA (Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement) in Canada and T-MEC (Tratado entre México, Estados Unidos y Canadá) in Mexico, is a trade agreement that replaced NAFTA.
Here are some key features and changes introduced by USMCA:

• Rules of Origin for Automobiles: One of the most significant changes in USMCA is the stricter rules of origin for automobiles. To qualify for duty-free status, a higher percentage (75%) of a vehicle's components must be manufactured in North America (up from 62.5% in NAFTA). Additionally, 70% of a vehicle's steel and aluminum must originate from North America.
   
• Labor Provisions: USMCA includes stronger labor provisions to protect workers' rights. It requires that a significant portion of automobile manufacturing (40-45%) be done by workers earning at least $16 per hour. The agreement also includes measures to address labor disputes, collective bargaining, and the prevention of child and forced labor.
   
• Access to Dairy Markets: USMCA opens up Canadian dairy markets to U.S. producers, allowing greater access to American dairy products like milk, cheese, and butter in the Canadian market.
   
• Intellectual Property: The agreement includes updated provisions for intellectual property protection, including patents, copyrights, and trademarks. It extends the copyright term to 70 years beyond the author's death.
   
• Digital Trade: USMCA introduces a chapter on digital trade, addressing issues related to e-commerce, cross-border data flows, and the protection of intellectual property in the digital age. This reflects the increasing importance of the digital economy in trade.
   
• Pharmaceuticals: The agreement includes provisions related to pharmaceuticals, extending the exclusivity period for biologic drugs to 10 years. This allows pharmaceutical companies to maintain control over these drugs for a longer period, potentially limiting competition and reducing access to affordable medicines.
   
• Dispute Resolution: The agreement maintains the dispute resolution mechanism from NAFTA, allowing countries to address trade disputes through a structured process.
   
• Sunset Clause: USMCA includes a provision that requires the three countries to review and potentially renew the agreement every six years. If not renewed, the agreement would expire after 16 years.

The Impact
This trade agreement grants the U.S. President a unique veto power over Canada's trade agenda, specifically when it comes to negotiations with non-market or state-run economies, such as China. Chapter XXXII of the USMCA stipulates that Canada, the U.S., and Mexico must collectively approve such negotiations, or the entire agreement could be jeopardized.

This provision is a strategic response to the Trump administration's approach to China's trade policies. While Canada seeks to strengthen ties with China, the USMCA's clause complicates these efforts. Canadian canola farmers are concerned about potentially missing out on a billion dollars in annual revenue if free trade with China remains restricted.

Additionally, the USMCA will bring more American dairy products to Canadian shelves, sparking concerns about rBST, a growth hormone banned in Canada but used in the U.S. While no conclusive evidence of harm to humans exists, some consumers call for rBST labeling.

Canada's struggles in the developed market in recent years, attributed in part to weaknesses in the oil sector. However, with the USMCA in place, a positive shift may occur as assets are expected to return to Canada. This expectation arises due to perceived underperformance in Europe and emerging markets, coupled with the uncertainty surrounding US politics and tariffs. It is posited that assets will migrate back to North America, thereby benefiting Canadian and US equities.

One of the significant wins for Canada in the USMCA negotiations was the auto sector. Under the new agreement, Canada can export up to 2.6 million vehicles to the United States tariff-free, representing a 40% increase from the current exports. Moreover, the deal mandates that 75% of autos must come from either the US, Canada, or Mexico, up from the previous 62.5%. Additionally, 40 to 45% of autos made in Mexico have to be produced by workers earning at least $16 USD an hour, a provision aimed at leveling the playing field for workers.

One of the major concerns surrounding the USMCA deal is the concessions made in the dairy and poultry sectors. The agreement grants American farmers more access to Canada's dairy and poultry market, equivalent to 3.6% of the Canadian market. This move has sparked criticism and concern, as it could negatively impact Canadian farmers and the supply management system. Additionally, Canada agreed to end the Class 7 pricing system, which lowered prices on some Canadian dairy products, a decision seen as a significant win for the US.

The political implications of the USMCA renegotiation are complex and multifaceted. The Trudeau government is framing the deal as a success, emphasizing the retention of key elements like Chapter 19, which allows Canada to challenge punitive tariffs on products like softwood lumber before special trade tribunals. This stance has been met with resistance from the opposition, who argue that the government made too many concessions.

• Economic Growth:
  • Positive Aspect: NAFTA significantly contributed to increased regional trade and economic growth over its lifespan.
  • Critique: While overall GDP growth occurred, the benefits were not evenly distributed. Critics argue that certain industries and regions suffered job losses and economic decline, leading to increased income inequality.
     
• Job Creation and Loss:
  • Positive Aspect: Proponents argue that NAFTA created jobs by expanding export opportunities for American businesses.
  • Critique: Critics contend that the agreement led to job losses in specific sectors, particularly manufacturing, where companies moved production to Mexico for lower labor costs.
     
• Industry Impact:
  • Positive Aspect: NAFTA facilitated the growth of some industries, such as agriculture, by providing expanded markets.
  • Critique: Industries like manufacturing faced challenges due to increased competition, especially from lower-wage Mexican counterparts, leading to plant closures and job displacement.
     
• Income Disparities:
  • Positive Aspect: NAFTA proponents highlight the overall growth in income for the involved nations.
  • Critique: Critics argue that the benefits were skewed towards wealthier individuals and corporations, exacerbating income inequality.
     
• Environmental and Labor Standards:
  • Positive Aspect: NAFTA was a pioneer in incorporating environmental and labor provisions into trade agreements.
  • Critique: Enforcement mechanisms for these provisions were considered weak, leading to concerns about lax standards and insufficient protection for workers and the environment.
     
• Regional Disparities:
  • Positive Aspect: NAFTA aimed to bridge the economic gap between the developed U.S. and Canada and the developing Mexico.
  • Critique: Critics argue that the benefits were not evenly distributed, with Mexico experiencing slower economic growth than anticipated, leading to persistent poverty and unemployment in certain regions.
     
• Trade Imbalances:
  • Positive Aspect: NAFTA led to a substantial increase in overall trade among the three nations.
  • Critique: The trade balance shifted, and the U.S. faced increasing trade deficits, particularly with Mexico, raising concerns about the impact on domestic industries.
     
• Sovereignty Concerns:
  • Positive Aspect: NAFTA aimed to foster cooperation and mutual benefit among the member nations.
  • Critique: Some critics expressed concerns about the erosion of national sovereignty, arguing that trade agreements should not compromise a nation's ability to enact and enforce its laws.

Impact on Mexican Agriculture:

• Positive Aspect: NAFTA aimed to boost Mexican agriculture by providing access to larger markets.
• Critique: Mexican small-scale farmers struggled against competition from heavily subsidized U.S. agriculture, leading to job losses and migration.

In conclusion, while NAFTA brought about increased trade and economic growth, its impact was not universally positive. The agreement faced criticism for contributing to job losses, income inequality, and environmental concerns. Understanding these nuances is crucial for evaluating the broader implications of free trade agreements and informing future trade policy decisions.

Conclusion
In the complex landscape of international trade, free trade agreements (FTAs) have historically played a pivotal role in shaping economic dynamics among nations. The focus of this research paper on the impact of climate change on production labor underscores the urgency of addressing challenges in the workforce due to environmental shifts. However, it is essential to recognize that the broader economic context, as exemplified by trade agreements like NAFTA and its successor, USMCA, adds another layer of complexity to the intricate interplay between global economic policies and environmental concerns.

Free trade agreements, such as NAFTA, have historically demonstrated the potential to boost agricultural trade and production, particularly in developing nations heavily reliant on farming. The principles of specialization and resource pooling can lead to transformative changes in a country's agricultural sector, with access to larger consumer markets driving economic shifts. However, this economic transformation is not uniform across all industries and countries, especially when there are disparities in development levels and resource-sharing balances.

The case study of NAFTA, viewed through the lenses of avocados and shoes, illustrates the dual nature of free trade impacts. While consumers benefit from increased variety and affordability of goods, certain industries, particularly those with wage disparities, may experience job losses and economic challenges. The double-edged sword of NAFTA, exemplified by the transformation in American eating habits and the decline of certain manufacturing sectors, sets the stage for understanding the complexities of international trade agreements.

The introduction of the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) as a successor to NAFTA introduces key changes and features aimed at modernizing trade relations. From stricter rules of origin for automobiles to enhanced labor provisions and access to dairy markets, the USMCA reflects an evolving approach to address the challenges posed by the global economic landscape. However, the impact of such agreements extends beyond economic considerations, with political implications and complex negotiations shaping the outcomes.

The impact of the USMCA on Canada, specifically its implications for trade negotiations with non-market economies, reveals the intricate web of diplomatic strategies embedded within trade agreements. The renegotiation of terms, particularly concerning dairy and poultry concessions, underscores the delicate balance of protecting national interests while engaging in collaborative economic endeavors.

In conclusion, as the world grapples with the urgent need to address climate change impacts on production labor, it is imperative to recognize the interconnectedness of economic policies and environmental challenges.

The evolving landscape of free trade agreements necessitates a nuanced understanding of their impacts on diverse industries and nations. As governments strive to balance economic growth, job creation, and environmental sustainability, the lessons learned from historical trade agreements should inform future policies that address the multifaceted challenges faced by the global community.

The integration of climate considerations into trade agreements, coupled with adaptive labor policies, represents a crucial step towards creating a resilient and sustainable future for both workers and economies worldwide.

End-Notes:

1. https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/united-states-mexico-canada-agreement